Macrolide
Macrolides are a class of mostly
Macrolides are
Definition
In general, any macrocyclic lactone having greater than 8-membered rings are candidates for this class. The macrocycle may contain
History
The first macrolide discovered was erythromycin, which was first used in 1952. Erythromycin was widely used as a substitute to penicillin in cases where patients were allergic to penicillin or had penicillin-resistant illnesses. Later macrolides developed, including azithromycin and clarithromycin, stemmed from chemically modifying erythromycin; these compounds were designed to be more easily absorbed and have fewer side-effects (erythromycin caused gastrointestinal side-effects in a significant proportion of users).[3]
Uses
Antibiotic macrolides are used to treat infections caused by
Macrolides are not to be used on nonruminant herbivores, such as horses and rabbits. They rapidly produce a reaction causing fatal digestive disturbance.[5] It can be used in horses less than one year old, but care must be taken that other horses (such as a foal's mare) do not come in contact with the macrolide treatment.
Macrolides can be administered in a variety of ways, including tablets, capsules, suspensions, injections and topically.[6]
Mechanism of action
Antibacterial
Macrolides are
Macrolide antibiotics bind reversibly to the P site on the
Immunomodulation
Diffuse panbronchiolitis
The macrolide antibiotics erythromycin, clarithromycin, and roxithromycin have proven to be an effective long-term treatment for the
With macrolide therapy in DPB, great reduction in bronchiolar inflammation and damage is achieved through suppression of not only
Examples
Antibiotic macrolides
US FDA-approved:
- Azithromycin – unique; does not extensively inhibit CYP3A4[14]
- Clarithromycin
- Dirithromycin – discontinued but was US FDA approved
- Erythromycin
Not approved in the US by FDA but approved in the other countries by respective national authorities:
- Carbomycin A
- Josamycin
- Kitasamycin
- Midecamycin/midecamycin acetate
- Oleandomycin
- Spiramycin – approved in the EU, and in other countries
- Troleandomycin – used in Italy and Turkey
- tylocine– used in animals
- Roxithromycin
Not approved as a drug for medical use:
Ketolides
Ketolides are a class of antibiotics that are structurally related to the macrolides. They are used to treat respiratory tract infections caused by macrolide-resistant bacteria. Ketolides are especially effective, as they have two ribosomal binding sites.
Ketolides include:
- Telithromycin – the first and only approved ketolide[16]
- Cethromycin
- Solithromycin
Fluoroketolides
Fluoroketolides are a class of antibiotics that are structurally related to the ketolides. The fluoroketolides have three ribosomal interaction sites.
Fluoroketolides include:
- Solithromycin – the first and currently the only fluoroketolide (not yet approved)
Non-antibiotic macrolides
The drugs
Antifungal drugs
Polyene antimycotics, such as amphotericin B, nystatin etc., are a subgroup of macrolides.[17] Cruentaren is another example of an antifungal macrolide.[18]
Toxic macrolides
A variety of toxic macrolides produced by bacteria have been isolated and characterized, such as the mycolactones.
Resistance
The primary means of bacterial resistance to macrolides occurs by post-transcriptional methylation of the 23S bacterial ribosomal RNA. This acquired resistance can be either plasmid-mediated or chromosomal, i.e., through mutation, and results in cross-resistance to macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramins (an MLS-resistant phenotype).[19]
Two other forms of acquired resistance include the production of drug-inactivating enzymes (esterases[20][21] or kinases[22]), as well as the production of active ATP-dependent efflux proteins that transport the drug outside of the cell.[23]
Azithromycin has been used to treat strep throat (Group A streptococcal (GAS) infection caused by Streptococcus pyogenes) in penicillin-sensitive patients; however, macrolide-resistant strains of GAS occur with moderate frequency. Cephalosporin is another option for these patients.[24]
Side-effects
A 2008
Some macrolides are also known to cause cholestasis, a condition where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum.[28] A new study found an association between erythromycin use during infancy and developing IHPS (Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis) in infants.[29] However, no significant association was found between macrolides use during pregnancy or breastfeeding.[29]
A Cochrane review showed gastrointestinal symptoms to be the most frequent adverse event reported in literature.[30]
Interactions
CYP3A4 is an enzyme that metabolizes many drugs in the liver. Macrolides inhibit CYP3A4, which means they reduce its activity and increase the blood levels of the drugs that depend on it for elimination. This can lead to adverse effects or drug-drug interactions.[31]
Macrolides have cyclic structure with a lactone ring and sugar moieties. They can inhibit CYP3A4 by a mechanism called mechanism-based inhibition (MBI), which involves the formation of reactive metabolites that bind covalently and irreversibly to the enzyme, rendering it inactive. MBI is more serious and long-lasting than reversible inhibition, as it requires the synthesis of new enzyme molecules to restore the activity.[14]
The degree of MBI by macrolides depends on the size and structure of their lactone ring. Clarithromycin and erythromycin have a 14-membered lactone ring, which is more prone to demethylation by CYP3A4 and subsequent formation of nitrosoalkenes, the reactive metabolites that cause MBI. Azithromycin, on the other hand, has a 15-membered lactone ring, which is less susceptible to demethylation and nitrosoalkene formation. Therefore, azithromycin is a weak inhibitor of CYP3A4, while clarithromycin and erythromycin are strong inhibitors which increase the area under the curve (AUC) value of co-administered drugs more than five-fold.[14] AUC it is a measure of the drug exposure in the body over time. By inhibiting CYP3A4, macrolide antibitiotics, such as erythromycin and clarithromycin, but not azithromycin, can significantly increase the AUC of the drugs that depend on it for clearance, which can lead to higher risk of adverse effects or drug-drug interactions. Azithromycin stands apart from other macrolide antibiotics because it is a weak inhibitor of CYP3A4, and does not significantly increase AUC value of co-administered drugs.[32]
The difference in CYP3A4 inhibition by macrolides has clinical implications, for example, for patients who take statins, which are cholesterol-lowering drugs that are mainly metabolized by CYP3A4. Co-administration of clarithromycin or erythromycin with statins can increase the risk of statin-induced myopathy, a condition that causes muscle pain and damage. Azithromycin, however, does not significantly affect the pharmacokinetics of statins and is considered a safer alternative. Another option is to use fluvastatin, a statin that is metabolized by CYP2C9, an enzyme that is not inhibited by clarithromycin.[14]
Macrolides, including azithromycin, should not be taken with colchicine as it may lead to colchicine toxicity. Symptoms of colchicine toxicity include gastrointestinal upset, fever, myalgia, pancytopenia, and organ failure.[33][34]
References
- PMID 27208895. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-12-526451-8.
- PMID 9109154.
- ^ "Macrolide Antibiotics Comparison: Erythromycin, Clarithromycin, Azithromycin". Retrieved 22 March 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-8138-0656-3.
- ^ "DailyMed". Food and Drug Administration (US). Retrieved 22 March 2017.
- ^ a b Protein synthesis inhibitors: macrolides mechanism of action animation. Classification of agents Pharmamotion. Author: Gary Kaiser. The Community College of Baltimore County. Retrieved on July 31, 2009
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- PMID 19275067. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
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- ^ S2CID 53711818.
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- PMID 11012550.
- ^ John R. Horn, Philip D. Hansten (2006). "Life Threatening Colchicine Drug Interactions. Drug Interactions: Insights and Observations" (PDF).
- PMID 36104598.
Further reading
- Ōmura S (2002). Macrolide antibiotics: chemistry, biology, and practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-526451-8.
- Bryskier A. "Antibacterial Agents; Structure Activity Relationships" (PDF). p. 143. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-04.