Madras Presidency
Presidency of Fort St George 1684–1935 Province of Madras 1935–1950 | |||||||||
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1652–1950 | |||||||||
George McCartney | |||||||||
• 1948–1950 (last) | Krishna Bhavsinhji | ||||||||
Premier | |||||||||
• 1920–1921 (first) | A. Subbarayalu Reddiar | ||||||||
• 1949–1950 (last) | P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja | ||||||||
Legislature | Madras Provincial Legislature | ||||||||
• State of Madras | 1950 | ||||||||
Population | |||||||||
• 1941 estimate | 49,341,810 | ||||||||
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Today part of | India |
Colonial India | ||||||||||||||
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The Madras Presidency or Madras Province, officially called the Presidency of Fort St. George until 1937, was an
The Madras Presidency was neighboured by the
In 1639, the English
Following the
Origins
Before the arrival of the English
The discovery of
The southwestern portions of the presidency, which together constitute Tulu Nadu and Kerala, has a distinct history, language, and culture from its eastern counterparts.
Early English trading posts (1600–1639)
On 31 December 1600,
Agency of Fort St George (1640–1684)
Andrew Cogan was succeeded by Francis Day (1643–1644), Thomas Ivie (1644–1648) and Thomas Greenhill (1648–52 and 1655–58). At the end of Greenhill's term in 1652, Fort St George was elevated to a Presidency, independent of Bantam[9] and under the leadership of the first president, Aaron Baker (1652–1655).[9] However, in 1655 the status of the fort was downgraded to an Agency and made subject to the factory at Surat,[13] until 1684. In 1658, control of all the factories in Bengal was given to Madras, when the English occupied the nearby village of Triplicane.[14][15]
Expansion (1684–1801)
In 1684, Fort St George Black Town where the 'natives' lived. The White Town was confined inside the walls of Fort St. George and the Black Town outside of it. The Black Town later came to be known as
In 1801, the Nawab of Arcot, Azim-ud-Daula signed the Carnatic Treaty bringing the Carnatic region under British rule. In return, Azim-ud-Daula was entitled to one-fifth of the total revenue of the state and the honour of a 21-gun salute.
During the Company rule (1801–1858)
From 1801 until 1858, Madras was a part of British India and was ruled by the British East India Company. The last quarter of the 18th century was a period of rapid expansion.
The period also witnessed a number of rebellions starting with the 1806
The Madras Presidency annexed the
British Raj (1858–1947)
In 1858, under the terms of Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Madras Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British crown.
Two large famines occurred in Madras during this period, the
Indian Independence movement
A strong sense of national awakening emerged in the Madras Presidency in the later half of the 19th century. The first political organisation in the province, the Madras Native Association, was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty on 26 February 1852.[40] However, the organisation did not last long.[41] The Madras Native Association was followed by the Madras Mahajana Sabha which was started on 16 May 1884. Of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885, 22 hailed from the Madras Presidency.[42][43] Most of the delegates were members of the Madras Mahajana Sabha. The third session of the Indian National Congress was held in Madras in December 1887[44] and was a huge success attended by 362 delegates from the province.[45] Subsequent sessions of the Indian National Congress took place in Madras in 1894, 1898, 1903 1908, 1914 and 1927.[46]
Dyarchy (1920–37)
A
During the 1920s and 1930s, an
Last days of British rule
In 1937, the Indian National Congress was elected to power in the Presidency of Madras for the first time.
Most of the Congress leadership and erstwhile ministers were arrested in 1942, as a result of their participation in the
Post Independence
Prakasam was succeeded by O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar, who was the chief Minister of the province when India gained independence on 15 August 1947.[67] The Madras Presidency became the Madras State in after the enactment of Constitution of India on 26 January 1950.[68]
Geography
At its greatest extent, the Madras Presidency included much of
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1871 | 31,597,872 | — |
1881 | 31,170,631 | −1.4% |
1891 | 35,630,440 | +14.3% |
1901 | 38,199,162 | +7.2% |
Sources: |
In 1822, the Madras Presidency underwent its first census, which returned a population of 13,476,923. A second census conducted between 1836 and 1837 recorded a population of 13,967,395, an increase of only 490,472 over 15 years. The first quinquennial population enumeration took place from 1851 until 1852. It returned a population of 22,031,697. Subsequent enumerations were made in 1851–52, 1856–57, 1861–62, and 1866–67. The population of Madras Presidency was tallied at 22,857,855, 24,656,509 in 1861–62 and 26,539,052 in 1866–67.[71] The first organised census of India was conducted in 1871 and returned a population of 31,220,973 for the Madras Presidency.[72] Since then, a census has been conducted once every ten years. The last census of British India held in 1941 counted a population of 49,341,810 for the Madras Presidency.[73]
Languages
The Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Odia, Tulu and English languages were all spoken in the Madras Presidency. Tamil was spoken in the southern districts of the presidency from a few miles north of Madras city as far west as the Nilgiri hills and Western Ghats.[74] Telugu was spoken in the districts to the north of Madras city and to the east of Bellary and Anantapur districts.[74] In the district of South Kanara, the western part of Bellary and Anantapur districts and parts of Malabar, Kannada was spoken.[75] Malayalam was spoken in the districts of Malabar and South Kanara and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin, while Tulu was spoken in South Canara.[75] Oriya was spoken in the parts of the districts of then Ganjam and Vizagapatam.[75] English was spoken by Anglo-Indians and Eurasians. It was also the link language for the presidency and the official language of British India in which all government proceedings and court hearings were conducted.[76]
According to the 1871 census, there were 14,715,000 people who spoke Tamil, 11,610,000 people who spoke Telugu, 2,324,000 people who spoke Malayalam, 1,699,000 spoke Canarese or Kannada, 640,000 people spoke Oriya and 29,400 people spoke Tulu.[77] The 1901 census returned 15,182,957 speakers of Tamil, 14,276,509 Telugu-speakers, 2,861,297 speakers of Malayalam, 1,518,579 were speakers of Kannada, 1,809,314 spoke Oriya, 880,145 spoke Hindusthani/Urdu and 1,680,635 spoke other languages.[78] At the time of Indian independence, Tamil and Telugu speakers made up over 78% of the total population of the presidency, with Kannada, Malayalam and Tulu speakers making up the rest.[79]
Religion
In 1901, the population breakdown was:
Hinduism was the predominant religion in the presidency and practised by around 88% of the population. The main Hindu denominations were
Administration
The Pitt's India Act of 1784 created an executive council with legislative powers to assist the Governor. The council initially consisted of four members, two of whom were from the Indian civil service or covenanted civil service and the third, an Indian of distinction.[91] The fourth was the Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army.[92] The council was reduced to three members when the Madras Army was abolished in 1895.[92] The legislative powers of this council were withdrawn as per the Government of India Act 1833 and it was reduced to the status of a mere advisory body.[93] However, these powers were restored as per Indian Councils Act 1861.[93] The council was expanded from time to time through the inclusion of official and non-official members and served as the main legislative body till 1935, when a legislative assembly of a more representative nature was created and legislative powers were transferred to the assembly. On India's independence on 15 August 1947, the three-member Governor's executive council was abolished.
The origins of Madras Presidency lay in the village of Madraspatnam which was obtained in 1640.
There were five princely states subordinate to the Madras government. They were Banganapalle, Cochin, Pudukkottai, Sandur, and Travancore.[98] All these states had a considerable degree of internal autonomy. However, their foreign policy was completely controlled by a Resident who represented the Governor of Fort St George.[99] In case of Banganapalle, the Resident was the District Collector of Kurnool, while the District Collector of Bellary[100] was the Resident of Sandur.[101] The Resident of Pudukkottai from 1800 to 1840 and 1865 to 1873, was the District Collector of Tanjore, from 1840 to 1865, the District Collector of Madura and from 1873 to 1947, the District Collector of Trichinopoly.[102]
Armed forces
The English East India Company was first permitted to set up its own garrison in 1665 to guard its settlements. Notable amongst the early operations of the company's forces were the defence of the city from Mughal and Maratha invaders and from the incursions of the Nawab of Carnatic. In 1713, the Madras forces under Lieutenant John de Morgan distinguished themselves in the siege of Fort St David and in putting down Richard Raworth's Rebellion.[103]
When Joseph François Dupleix, the Governor of French India, began to raise native battalions in 1748, the British of Madras followed suit and established the Madras Regiment.[104] Though native regiments were subsequently established by the British in other parts of India, the distances that separated the three presidencies resulted in each force developing divergent principles and organisations. The first reorganisation of the army took place in 1795 when the Madras army was reconstituted into the following units:
- European Infantry – Two battalions of ten companies
- Artillery – Two European battalions of five companies each, with fifteen companies of lascars
- Native Cavalry – Four regiments
- Native Infantry – Eleven regiments of two battalions[105]
In 1824, a second reorganisation took place, whereupon the double battalions were abolished and the existing battalions were renumbered. The Madras Army at the time consisted of one European and one native brigade of horse artillery, three battalions of foot artillery of four companies each, with four companies of lascars attached, three regiments of light cavalry, two corps of pioneers, two battalions of European infantry, 52 battalions of native infantry and three local battalions.[106][107]
Between 1748 and 1895, as with the Bengal and Bombay armies, the Madras Army had its own Commander-in-Chief who was subordinate to the president, and later to the
The 1857 Mutiny, which quickly led to drastic changes in the Bengal and Bombay armies, had no effect on the Madras Army. In 1895, the presidency armies were finally merged and the Madras regiments came under the direct control of the Commander-in-chief of British India.[112]
in 1890 three madras infantry battalions were accordingly reconstituted, at least for a time, by tapping two south Indian communities which had not yet provided many recruits to the Indian army-the Mappilas and the coorgs, the government of madras was sceptical, and agreed to the formation of two Mappila battalions only on condition they were deployed outside Malabar. Raised in 1900, the new regiments were complete failure, they soon dwindled to 600 men 'quite useless for service'. ref:The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940 [113]
Land tenure
Revenue from land rental as well as an income tax based on the tenant's net profits from their land was the presidency's main source of income.
In ancient times, land appears to have been held in common with an individual unable to sell it without the consent of the other owners, who in most cases were members of the same community.
The proprietary system was entirely different in the district of Malabar and the states of
Islamic invasions caused minor changes in the land proprietorship system when taxes on Hindu land owners were raised and private ownership of property came down.[121]
When the British took over administration, the centuries-old system of land proprietorship was left intact.[122] The new rulers appointed middlemen to collect revenue for lands which were not under the control of local zamindars. In most cases, these go-betweens ignored the welfare of the farmers and exploited them to the full.[122] A Board of Revenue was established in 1786 to solve the issue but to no avail.[123] At the same time, the zamindari settlement established in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis proved highly successful and was later implemented in the Madras Presidency from 1799 onwards.[124]
However, the Permanent Settlement was not as successful as it had been in Bengal. When the Company did not reach the expected profit levels, a new system known as the "Village Settlement" was implemented between 1804 and 1814 in the districts of Tinnevely, Trichinopoly, Coimbatore, North Arcot and South Arcot. This involved the leasing of land to the principal cultivators, who in turn leased the land to
By the early 20th century, the greater part of the land was held by ryots who paid rent directly to the Government. Zamindari estates occupied about 26 million acres (110,000 km2), more than one-quarter of the whole presidency. The peshkash, or tribute, payable to the government in perpetuity was about £330,000 a year. Inams, revenue-free or quit-rent grants of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to the state, occupied an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres (32,000 km2).[127] In 1945–46, there were 20,945,456 acres (84,763.25 km2) of Zamindari estates yielding revenues of ₹9,783,167 and 58,904,798 acres (238,379.26 km2) of ryotwari lands which produced ₹72,665,330.[128] Madras had forest coverage of 15,782 square miles (40,880 km2).[129]
The Land Estates Act of 1908 was passed by the Madras Government in order to protect cultivators in Zamindaris from exploitation. Under the act, ryots were made permanent occupants of the land.[130] However, far from protecting the ryots, the legislation proved to be detrimental to the interests of the cultivators in the Oriya-speaking northern districts of the presidency[131] who were the intended beneficiaries, as it tied the cultivator to his land and landlord with the chains of eternal serfdom. In 1933, an amendment to the Act was introduced by the Raja of Bobbili to curb the rights of Zamindars and safeguard the cultivators from exploitation. This act was passed in the legislative council despite strong opposition from the Zamindars.
Agriculture and irrigation
Almost 71% of the population of Madras Presidency was engaged in agriculture
Irrigation along the east coast is carried out mostly by means of dams across rivers, lakes and
The Land Improvement and Agriculturists Loan Act passed in 1884 provided funds for the construction of wells and their utilisation in reclamation projects.[141] In the early part of the 20th century, the Madras government established the Pumping and Boring Department to drill boreholes with electric pumps.[138] The Mettur Dam,[142] the Periyar Project, the Cudappah-Kurnool canal and the Rushikulya Project were the biggest irrigation projects launched by the Madras Government. Constructed below the Hogenakkal Falls on the Madras-Mysore border in 1934, the Mettur Dam supplied water to the western districts of the presidency. The Periyar Dam (now known as the Mullaperiyar Dam) was constructed across the Periyar river in Travancore, near the border.[143] This project diverted the waters of the Periyar river to the Vaigai River basin in order to irrigate the arid lands to the east of the Western Ghats.[143] Similarly, the Rushikulya Project was launched to utilise the waters of the Rushikulya river in Ganjam.[144] Under the scheme over 142,000 acres (570 km2) of land were brought under irrigation.[144] The British also constructed a number of dams and canals for irrigation. An upper dam was constructed across the Kollidam river near Srirangam island.[145] The Dowlaishwaram dam across the Godavari river, the Gunnavaram aqueduct across the Vaineteyam Godavari, the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal[133] and the Krishna dam are examples of major irrigation works carried out by the British.[144][145] In 1946–47, the total area under irrigation was 9,736,974 acres (39,404.14 km2) acres which yielded a return of 6.94% on capital outlay.[146]
Trade, industry and commerce
The trade of the Madras Presidency comprised that of both the presidency with other Provinces and its overseas trade. External trade made up 93 percent of the total with internal trade making up the remainder.[147] Foreign trade accounted for 70 percent of the total while 23 percent was inter-provincial.[147] In 1900–01, imports from other provinces of British India amounted to ₹13.43 crores while exports to other provinces amounted to ₹11.52 crores. During the same year, exports to other countries reached ₹11.74 crores while imports were valued at ₹66.2 million.[148] At the time of India's independence, imports of the presidency amounted to ₹71.32 crores a year while exports were valued at ₹645.1 million.[146] Trade with the United Kingdom made up 31.54% of the total trade of the presidency with Madras the chief port accounting for 49% of the total trade.[146]
Cotton piece-goods, cotton twist and yarn, metals and kerosene oil were the main items of import while animal hides and skins, raw cotton, coffee and piece-goods were the chief exports.
Cotton-ginning and weaving were two of the main industries in the Madras Presidency. Cotton was produced in large quantities in the Bellary district and was pressed in
The presidency's fishing industry thrived, with Shark's fins,
The total revenue of the presidency was ₹57 crores in 1946–47 made as follows: Land revenue, ₹8.53 crores; Excise, ₹14.68 crores; Income tax, ₹4.48 crores; Stamp revenue, ₹4.38 crores; forests, ₹1.61 crores; other taxes, ₹8.45 crores; Extraordinary receipts, ₹2.36 crores and revenue fund, Rs.5.02 crores. Total expenditure for 1946–47 was ₹569.9 million.[146] 208,675 k.v.a of electricity was generated at the end of 1948 of which 98% was under government ownership.[146] The total amount of power generated was 467 million units.[146]
The
Between 1913 and 1914, Madras had 247 companies.[171] In 1947, the city led in the establishment of registered factories but employed only 62% of the total productive capital.[171]
The first Western-style banking institution in India was the Madras Bank which was established on 21 June 1683, with a capital of one hundred thousand pounds sterling.
Transport and communication
In the early days of the agency, the only means of transportation were bullock-carts known as jhatkas along with
The first organised initiative for the construction of new roads and maintenance of existing roads in the presidency was initiated in 1845 with the appointment of a special officer for the maintenance of main roads.[182] The principal roads under the aegis of the officer were the Madras-Bangalore road, Madras-Trichinopoly road, Madras-Calcutta road, Madras-Cuddapah road and the Sumpajee Ghaut road.[182] A Public Works Department was initiated by Lord Dalhousie in 1852 and subsequently in 1855 an East coast canal was constructed for the purpose of easy navigation.[182] Roadways were handled by the Public Works Secretariat which was under the control of the member of the Governor's Executive Council. The principal highways of the presidency were the Madras-Calcutta road, the Madras-Travancore road and the Madras-Calicut road.[183] By 1946–47, the Madras Presidency had 26,201 miles (42,166 km) of metalled roads and 14,406 miles (23,184 km) of unmetalled roads, and 1,403 miles (2,258 km) of navigable canals.[146]
The first railway line in South India was laid between Madras and Arcot, which was opened for traffic on 1 July 1856.
The Madras Tramways Corporation was promoted in Madras city in 1892 by Hutchinsons and Co. and began operating in 1895, before even London had its own tramway system.[181] It plied six routes in Madras linking distant parts of Madras city and covered a total of 17 miles (27 km).[181]
The chief navigable waterways in the presidency were the canals in the Godavari and the Kistna deltas.
In 1917, Simpson and Co. arranged for a test flight by the first aeroplane in Madras
The first organised postal service was established between Madras and Calcutta by Governor
Madras was linked to the rest of the world through telegraphs in 1853 and a civilian telegraph service was introduced on 1 February 1855. Soon afterwards, telegraph lines linked Madras and Ootacamund with other cities in India. A Telegraph department was set up in 1854, with a Deputy Superintendent stationed in Madras city. The
Education
The first schools offering Western-style education in the presidency were established in Madras
Similarly, Andhra University was established by the Andhra University Act of 1925[199] and in 1937, the University of Travancore was established in the princely state of Travancore.[200]
The Government Arts College, established in
Among the private institutions, the Pachaiyappa's College, established in 1842, is the oldest Hindu educational institution in the presidency. The Annamalai University, established by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar in Chidambaram in 1929, was the first university in the presidency to have hostel facilities[207] Christian missionaries were pioneers in promoting education in the region. The Madras Christian College, St. Aloysius College at Mangalore, Loyola College in Madras and the St. Peter's College at Tanjore were some of the educational institutions established by Christian missionaries.
The Madras Presidency had the highest literacy rate of all the provinces in
The preponderance of Brahmins in the universities and in the civic administration was one of the main causes for the growth of the Anti-Brahmin movement in the presidency. Madras was also the first province in British India where caste-based communal reservations were introduced.In 1923, the Madras University Act was passed after its introduction by Education Minister
Culture and society
Hindus, Muslims and Christians generally followed a joint family system.[212][213] The society was largely patriarchal with the eldest male member the leader of the family.[213] Most of the presidency followed a patrilineal system of inheritance.[214] The only exceptions were the district of Malabar and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin which practised the marumakkathayam system.[215]
Women were expected to confine themselves to indoor activities and the maintenance of the household. Muslims and high-caste Hindu women observed purdah.[212] The daughter in the family rarely received an education and usually helped her mother with household chores.[216] Upon marrying, she moved to the house of her in-laws where she was expected to serve her husband and the elder members of his family.[217][218] There have been recorded instances of torture and ill treatment of daughters-in-law.[217][218] A Brahmin widow was expected to shave her head and was subjected to numerous indignities.[219][220]
Rural society comprised villages where people of different communities lived together. Brahmins lived in separate streets called
Serfdom was practised in almost all castes from Brahmins to non-Brahmins subjecting agricultural labourers to bondage for non-payment of debt.[224] The Law Commission report on slavery in 1841 contains the indicative figures on the number of slaves, computed based on the population of specific castes of Pallar and Paraiyar.[225] There were proposed regulations in 1811 and 1823 to prevent child labour.[226] In 1833, the British Crown and the House of Commons proposed immediate abolition of slavery in India, but East India Company decreed otherwise.[227] All legal recognition to permit the civil status of slavery were withdrawn with the Act V of 1843 and selling of slaves became a criminal offence in 1862 under the new Indian Penal Code.[228] In spite of these regulations, serfdom continued and the slave population formed 12.2% – 20% of the total population in 1930 across various districts of the presidency.[229]
The
Traditional pastimes and forms of recreation in rural areas were
The presidency's first newspaper, the Madras Courier, was started on 12 October 1785, by Richard Johnston, a printer employed by the British East India Company.
Regular radio service in the presidency commenced in 1938 when All India Radio established a station in Madras.[241] Cinemas became popular in the 1930s and 1940s with the first film in a South Indian language, R. Nataraja Mudaliar's Tamil film Keechaka Vadham, released in 1916. The first sound films in Tamil and Telugu were made in 1931 while the first Kannada talkie Sati Sulochana was made in 1934 and the first Malayalam talkie Balan in 1938.[242] There were film studios at Coimbatore,[243] Salem,[244] Madras and Karaikudi.[245] Most early films were made in Coimbatore and Salem[243][244] but from the 1940s onwards, Madras began to emerge as the principal centre of film production.[243][245] Until the 1950s, most films in Telugu,[246] Kannada[247] and Malayalam[248] were made in Madras.
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A Westernized middle-class urban Tamil Brahmin couple. c.a .1945
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Tamil film actor M. K. Thyagaraja Bhagavathar
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ANamboodiri Brahman's house, c.a. 1909
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Hindu devotees in procession around the temple atTirupparankunram, c.a. 1909
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A Mangalorean Catholic gentleman belonging to the Bamonn caste, c. a. 1938
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Refreshment stall at a railway station in the Madras Presidency, c. a. 1895
See also
- History of Tamil Nadu
- History of Kerala
- Administrative divisions of Madras Presidency
- Madras States Agency
- List of colonial governors and presidents of Madras Presidency
- Advocate-General of Madras
- Sheriff of Madras
- Bengal Presidency
- Bombay Presidency
References
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External links
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