Magnetic-tape data storage
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Computer memory and Computer data storage types |
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Volatile |
Non-volatile |
Magnetic-tape data storage is a system for storing
Tape was an important medium for
Tape data storage[2] is now used more for system backup,[3] data archive and data exchange. The low cost of tape has kept it viable for long-term storage and archive.[4]
Open reels
Initially, magnetic tape for data storage was wound on 10.5-inch (27 cm) reels.[5] This standard for large computer systems persisted through the late 1980s, with steadily increasing capacity due to thinner substrates and changes in encoding. Tape cartridges and cassettes were available starting in the mid-1970s and were frequently used with small computer systems. With the introduction of the IBM 3480 cartridge in 1984, described as "about one-fourth the size ... yet it stored up to 20 percent more data",[6] large computer systems started to move away from open-reel tapes and towards cartridges.[7]
UNIVAC
Magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the
IBM formats
CDC used IBM-compatible 1⁄2-inch (13 mm) magnetic tapes, but also offered a 1-inch-wide (25 mm) variant, with 14 tracks (12 data tracks corresponding to the 12-bit word of CDC 6000 series peripheral processors, plus 2 parity bits) in the CDC 626 drive.[10]
Early IBM tape drives, such as the
Early half-inch tape had seven parallel tracks of data along the length of the tape, allowing 6-bit characters plus 1 bit of
Recording density increased over time. Common 7-track densities started at 200 characters per inch (CPI), then 556, and finally 800; 9-track tapes had densities of 800 (using
At least partly due to the success of the System/360, and the resultant standardization on 8-bit character codes and byte addressing, 9-track tapes were very widely used throughout the computer industry during the 1970s and 1980s.
DEC format
Cartridges and cassettes
In the context of magnetic tape, the term cassette or cartridge means a length of magnetic tape in a plastic enclosure with one or two reels for controlling the motion of the tape. The type of packaging affects the load and unload times as well as the length of tape that can be held. In a single-reel cartridge, there is a takeup reel in the drive while a dual reel cartridge has both takeup and supply reels in the cartridge. A tape drive uses one or more precisely controlled motors to wind the tape from one reel to the other, passing a read/write head as it does.[citation needed]
A different type is the endless tape cartridge, which has a continuous loop of tape wound on a special reel that allows tape to be withdrawn from the center of the reel and then wrapped up around the edge, and therefore does not need to rewind to repeat. This type is similar to a single-reel cartridge in that there is no take-up reel inside the tape drive.[citation needed]
The IBM 7340 Hypertape drive, introduced in 1961, used a dual reel cassette with a 1-inch-wide (2.5 cm) tape capable of holding 2 million six-bit characters per cassette.[citation needed]
In the 1970s and 1980s, audio
In 1984 IBM introduced the
In 2003 IBM introduced the 3592 family to supersede the IBM 3590. While the name is similar, there is no compatibility between the 3590 and the 3592. Like the 3590 and 3480 before it, this tape format has 1⁄2-inch (13 mm) tape spooled into a single reel cartridge. Initially introduced to support 300 gigabytes, the sixth generation released in 2018 supports a native capacity of 20 terabytes.[17]
Linear Tape-Open (LTO) single-reel cartridge was announced in 1997 at 100 gigabytes and in its eighth generation supports 12 terabytes in the same sized cartridge. As of 2019[update] LTO has completely displaced all other tape technologies in computer applications, with the exception of some IBM 3592 family at the high-end.[citation needed]
Technical details
Linear density
Bytes per inch (BPI) is the metric for the density at which data is stored on magnetic media. The term BPI can refer to bits per inch,[18] but more often refers to bytes per inch.[19]
The term BPI can mean bytes per inch when the tracks of a particular format are byte-organized, as in nine-track tapes.[20]
Tape width
The width of the media is the primary classification criterion for tape technologies. One-half-inch (13 mm) has historically been the most common width of tape for high-capacity data storage.[21] Many other sizes exist and most were developed to either have smaller packaging or higher capacity.[citation needed]
Recording method
Recording method is also an important way to classify tape technologies, generally falling into two categories: linear and scanning.[citation needed]
Linear
The linear method arranges data in long parallel tracks that span the length of the tape. Multiple tape heads simultaneously write parallel tape tracks on a single medium. This method was used in early tape drives. It is the simplest recording method, but also has the lowest data density.[citation needed]
A variation on linear technology is linear serpentine recording, which uses more tracks than tape heads. Each head still writes one track at a time. After making a pass over the whole length of the tape, all heads shift slightly and make another pass in the reverse direction, writing another set of tracks. This procedure is repeated until all tracks have been read or written. By using the linear serpentine method, the tape medium can have many more tracks than read/write heads. Compared to simple linear recording, using the same tape length and the same number of heads, data storage capacity is substantially higher.[citation needed]
Scanning
Scanning recording methods write short dense tracks across the width of the tape medium, not along the length. Tape heads are placed on a drum or disk which rapidly rotates while the relatively slow-moving tape passes it.[citation needed]
An early method used to get a higher data rate than the prevailing linear method was transverse scan. In this method, a spinning disk with the tape heads embedded in the outer edge is placed perpendicular to the path of the tape. This method is used in Ampex's DCRsi instrumentation data recorders and the old Ampex quadruplex videotape system. Another early method was arcuate scan. In this method, the heads are on the face of a spinning disk which is laid flat against the tape. The path of the tape heads forms an arc.[citation needed]
Helical scan recording writes short dense tracks in a diagonal manner. This method is used by virtually all current videotape systems and several data tape formats.[citation needed]
Block layout and speed matching
In a typical format, data is written to tape in blocks with inter-block gaps between them, and each block is written in a single operation with the tape running continuously during the write. However, since the rate at which data is written or read to the tape drive varies as a tape drive usually has to cope with a difference between the rate at which data goes on and off the tape and the rate at which data is supplied or demanded by its host.[citation needed]
Various methods have been used alone and in combination to cope with this difference. If the host cannot keep up with the tape drive transfer rate, the tape drive can be stopped, backed up, and restarted (known as shoe-shining). A large memory buffer can be used to queue the data. In the past, the host block size affected the data density on tape, but on modern drives, data is typically organized into fixed-sized blocks which may or may not be compressed or encrypted, and host block size no longer affects data density on tape. Modern tape drives offer a speed matching feature, where the drive can dynamically decrease the physical tape speed as needed to avoid shoe-shining.[22]
In the past, the size of the inter-block gap was constant, while the size of the data block was based on host block size, affecting tape capacity – for example, on count key data storage. On most modern drives, this is no longer the case. Linear Tape-Open type drives use a fixed-size block for tape (a fixed-block architecture), independent of the host block size, and the inter-block gap is variable to assist with speed matching during writes.[citation needed]
On drives with compression, the compressibility of the data will affect the capacity.[how?]
Sequential access to data
Tape is characterized by sequential access to data. While tape can provide fast data transfer, it takes tens of seconds to load a cassette and position the tape head to selected data. By contrast, hard disk technology can perform the equivalent action in tens of milliseconds (3 orders of magnitude faster) and can be thought of as offering random access to data.[citation needed]
Access time
Tape has a long random access time since the deck must wind an average of one-third the tape length to move from one arbitrary position to another. Tape systems attempt to alleviate the intrinsic long latency, either using indexing, where a separate lookup table (tape directory) is maintained which gives the physical tape location for a given data block number (a must for serpentine drives), or by marking blocks with a
Data compression
Most tape drives now include some kind of
The compression algorithms used in low-end products are not optimally effective, and better results may be obtained by turning off hardware compression and using software compression (and encryption if desired) instead.[citation needed]
Plain text, raw images, and database files (
Encryption
Standards exist to encrypt tapes.[24] Encryption is used so that even if a tape is stolen, the thieves cannot use the data on the tape. Key management is crucial to maintain security. Compression is more efficient if done before encryption, as encrypted data cannot be compressed effectively due to the entropy it introduces. Some enterprise tape drives include hardware that can quickly encrypt data.[citation needed]
Cartridge memory and self-identification
Some tape cartridges, notably
Viability
Tape remains viable in modern data centers because:[26][27][28]
- it is the lowest cost medium for storing large amounts of data;
- as a removable medium it allows the creation of an air gap that can prevent data from being hacked, encrypted or deleted;
- its longevity allows for extended data retention which may be required by regulatory agencies.[29]
The lowest cost tiers of cloud storage can be supported by tape.[29]
High-density magnetic media
In 2002,
In 2014, Sony and IBM announced that they had been able to record 148 gigabits per square inch with magnetic tape media developed using a new vacuum thin-film forming technology able to form extremely fine crystal particles, a tape storage technology with the highest reported magnetic tape data density, 148 Gbit/in² (23 Gbit/cm²), potentially allowing a native tape capacity of 185 TB.[31][32] It was further developed by Sony, with announcement in 2017, about reported data density of 201 Gbit/in² (31 Gbit/cm²), giving standard compressed tape capacity of 330 TB.[33]
In May 2014,
In December 2020, Fujifilm and IBM announced technology that could lead to a tape cassette with a capacity of 580 terabytes, using strontium ferrite as the recording medium.[35]
Chronological list of tape formats
- 1951: UNISERVO
- 1952: IBM 7-track
- 1958: TX-2 Tape System
- 1961: IBM 7340 Hypertape
- 1962: LINCtape
- 1963: DECtape
- 1964: 9-track
- 1964: Magnetic tape selectric typewriter
- 1966: 8-track tape[36]
- 1972: Quarter-inch cartridge (QIC)
- 1975: KC standard, Compact Cassette
- 1976: DC100
- 1977: Tarbell Cassette Interface
- 1977: Commodore Datasette
- 1979: DECtape II cartridge
- 1979: Stringy Floppy
- 1981: IBM PC Cassette Interface
- 1983: Sinclair ZX Microdrive
- 1984: Sinclair QL Microdrive
- 1984: Rotronics Wafadrive
- 1984: IBM 3480 cartridge
- 1984: Digital Linear Tape (DLT)
- 1986: SLR
- 1987: Data8
- 1989: Digital Data Storage (DDS) on Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
- 1992: Ampex DST
- 1994: Mammoth
- 1995: IBM 3590
- 1995: StorageTek Redwood SD-3
- 1995: Travan
- 1996: AIT
- 1997: IBM 3570 MP
- 1998: StorageTek T9840
- 1999: VXA
- 2000: StorageTek T9940
- 2000: LTO-1
- 2003: SAIT
- 2003: LTO-2
- 2003: 3592
- 2005: LTO-3
- 2005: TS1120
- 2006: T10000
- 2007: LTO-4
- 2008: TS1130
- 2008: T10000B
- 2010: LTO-5
- 2011: TS1140
- 2011: T10000C
- 2012: LTO-6
- 2013: T10000D
- 2014: TS1150
- 2015: LTO-7
- 2017: TS1155
- 2017: LTO-8
- 2018: TS1160
- 2021: LTO-9
- 2023: TS1170
See also
- Computer data storage
- Data proliferation
- Information repository
- Linear Tape-Open
- Magnetic storage
- Tape drive
- Tape mark
Explanatory notes
- ^ 1.5 ms from stopped tape to full speed of 112.5 inches per second (2.86 m/s).[citation needed]
- ^ Experienced computer gamers could tell a lot by listening to the loading noise from the tape.[15]
- ^ As illustrated by the pigeonhole principle, every lossless data compression algorithm will end up increasing the size of some inputs.
References
- ^ "LTO Compliance-Verified Licencees". Ultrium. Archived from the original on 2006-11-13. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
- ISBN 0074603183.
- ^ "Ten Reasons Why Tape Is Still The Best Way To Backup Data".
- ^ Coughlin, Tom. "The Costs Of Storage". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-11-03.
- ISBN 978-1285415420. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-12-10.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM 3480 cartridge with standard tape reel". IBM. 23 January 2003.
- ^ "IBM 3480 tape cartridge (200 MB)". ComputerHistory.org.
... it replaced the standard ...
- ^ Staff, History Computer (2021-01-04). "Magnetic Tape Explained - Everything You Need To Know". History-Computer. Retrieved 2022-09-18.
- ^ H. F. Welsh; H. Lukoff (1952). "The Uniservo – Tape Reader and Recorder" (PDF). American Federation of Information Processing Societies – via IEEE Computer Society.
- ^ Control Data 6400/6600 Computing Systems' Configurator. Control Data Corporation. October 1966. p. 4.
- ^ "11 super high tech computers seen on 1960s television". Me-TV Network.
- ^ "IBM 3420 magnetic tape drive". IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved June 2, 2019.
- ^ "Obsolete Technology: Reel to Reel". Rice History Corner. Rice University. May 15, 2015. Retrieved June 2, 2019.
...became de rigueur on many different computers, from mainframes to minis.
- ^ Bob Supnik (June 19, 2006). "Technical Notes on DECsys" (PDF).
- ^ Stuart, Keith (27 August 2019). "Click, whir, ping: the lost sounds of loading video games". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ Burroughs B1700 Field Engineering manual
- ^ Becca Caddy (Dec 13, 2022). "Magnetic tape: The surprisingly retro way big tech stores your data". New Scientist.
- ^ "bit density""Black's Law Dictionary, 2nd Ed". 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 2017-09-26.
- ISBN 0231083106.
- ISBN 0231083106.
- ^ "SDLT 320 handbook" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-29. Retrieved 2013-03-28.
- ^ "Info". www-01.ibm.com. Retrieved 2019-12-28.
- ^ Wangtek Corporation, OEM Manual, Series 5099ES/5125ES/5150ES SCSI Interface Streaming 1/4 Inch Tape Cartridge Drive, Rev D, 1991. QFA (Quick File Access) Partition, page 4-29–4-31.
- ^ "Tape Encryption Purchase Considerations". Computer Weekly. Oct 2007. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
- ^ "LTO bar code label". IBM. Retrieved 2022-06-28.
- ^ "In the Tape vs. Disk War, Think Tape AND Disk - Enterprise Systems". Esj.com. 2009-02-17. Archived from the original on 2012-02-01. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
- ^ "HP article on backup for home users, recommending several methods, but not tape, 2011". H71036.www7.hp.com. 2010-03-25. Archived from the original on 2011-12-09. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
- ^ "Oracle StorageTek SL8500 Modular Library System". Retrieved 2020-06-29.
- ^ a b "The role of tape in the modern data center". Techradar Pro. July 8, 2020. Retrieved July 16, 2020.
Tape still offers several benefits that cloud storage doesn't
- ^ "The Future of Tape: Containing the Information Explosion" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ "Sony develops magnetic tape technology with the world's highest*1 areal recording density of 148 Gb/in2". Sony Global. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
- ^ Fingas, Jon (4 May 2014). "Sony's 185TB data tape puts your hard drive to shame". Engadget. Archived from the original on 3 May 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
- ^ "Sony Develops Magnetic Tape Storage Technology with the Industry's Highest*1 Recording Areal Density of 201 Gb/in2". Sony. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
- ^ "Fujifilm achieves new data storage record of 154TB on advanced prototype tape". Archived from the original on 2017-06-16. Retrieved 2017-06-07.
- ^ Grad, Peter. "Fujifilm, IBM unveil 580-terabyte magnetic tape". techxplore.com. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
- ^ "Compucolor 8001 computer". www.oldcomputers.net. Archived from the original on January 29, 2016.