Magnetite
Magnetite | ||
---|---|---|
Specific gravity 5.17–5.18 | | |
Solubility | Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid | |
References | [2][3][4][5] | |
Major varieties | ||
Lodestone | Magnetic with definite north and south poles |
Magnetite is a
Magnetite is black or brownish-black with a metallic luster, has a
The chemical
Properties
In addition to igneous rocks, magnetite also occurs in
Crystal structure
The chemical composition of magnetite is Fe2+(Fe3+)2(O2-)4. This indicates that magnetite contains both
As a member of the inverse spinel group, magnetite can form
Titanomagnetite, also known as titaniferous magnetite, is a solid solution between magnetite and ulvospinel that crystallizes in many
Crystal morphology and size
Natural and synthetic magnetite occurs most commonly as octahedral crystals bounded by {111} planes and as rhombic-dodecahedra.[15] Twinning occurs on the {111} plane.[3]
Hydrothermal synthesis usually produces single octahedral crystals which can be as large as 10 mm (0.39 in) across.[15] In the presence of mineralizers such as 0.1 M HI or 2 M NH4Cl and at 0.207 MPa at 416–800 °C, magnetite grew as crystals whose shapes were a combination of rhombic-dodechahedra forms.[15] The crystals were more rounded than usual. The appearance of higher forms was considered as a result from a decrease in the surface energies caused by the lower surface to volume ratio in the rounded crystals.[15]
Reactions
Magnetite has been important in understanding the conditions under which rocks form. Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control how oxidizing its environment is (the oxygen fugacity). This buffer is known as the hematite-magnetite or HM buffer. At lower oxygen levels, magnetite can form a buffer with quartz and fayalite known as the QFM buffer. At still lower oxygen levels, magnetite forms a buffer with wüstite known as the MW buffer. The QFM and MW buffers have been used extensively in laboratory experiments on rock chemistry. The QFM buffer, in particular, produces an oxygen fugacity close to that of most igneous rocks.[18][19]
Commonly, igneous rocks contain solid solutions of both titanomagnetite and hemoilmenite or titanohematite. Compositions of the mineral pairs are used to calculate oxygen fugacity: a range of oxidizing conditions are found in magmas and the oxidation state helps to determine how the magmas might evolve by fractional crystallization.[20] Magnetite also is produced from peridotites and dunites by serpentinization.[21]
Magnetic properties
Lodestones were used as an early form of
The relationships between magnetite and other iron oxide minerals such as ilmenite, hematite, and ulvospinel have been much studied; the reactions between these minerals and oxygen influence how and when magnetite preserves a record of the Earth's magnetic field.[23]
At low temperatures, magnetite undergoes a crystal structure phase transition from a monoclinic structure to a cubic structure known as the Verwey transition. Optical studies show that this metal to insulator transition is sharp and occurs around 120 K.[24] The Verwey transition is dependent on grain size, domain state, pressure,[25] and the iron-oxygen stoichiometry.[26] An isotropic point also occurs near the Verwey transition around 130 K, at which point the sign of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant changes from positive to negative.[27] The Curie temperature of magnetite is 580 °C (853 K; 1,076 °F).[28]
If magnetite is in a large enough quantity it can be found in aeromagnetic surveys using a magnetometer which measures magnetic intensities.[29]
Melting point
Solid magnetite particles melt at about 1,583–1,597 °C (2,881–2,907 °F).[30][31]: 794
Distribution of deposits
Magnetite is sometimes found in large quantities in beach sand. Such
Large deposits of magnetite are also found in the
In large enough quantities magnetite can affect compass navigation. In Tasmania there are many areas with highly magnetized rocks that can greatly influence compasses. Extra steps and repeated observations are required when using a compass in Tasmania to keep navigation problems to the minimum.[46]
Magnetite crystals with a cubic habit are rare but have been found at Balmat, St. Lawrence County, New York,[47][48] and at Långban, Sweden.[49] This habit may be a result of crystallization in the presence of cations such as zinc.[50]
Magnetite can also be found in fossils due to biomineralization and are referred to as magnetofossils.[51] There are also instances of magnetite with origins in space coming from meteorites.[52]
Biological occurrences
Pure magnetite particles are biomineralized in magnetosomes, which are produced by several species of magnetotactic bacteria. Magnetosomes consist of long chains of oriented magnetite particle that are used by bacteria for navigation. After the death of these bacteria, the magnetite particles in magnetosomes may be preserved in sediments as magnetofossils. Some types of anaerobic bacteria that are not magnetotactic can also create magnetite in oxygen free sediments by reducing amorphic ferric oxide to magnetite.[58]
Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for
Biological magnetite may store information about the magnetic fields the organism was exposed to, potentially allowing scientists to learn about the migration of the organism or about changes in the Earth's magnetic field over time.[62]
Human brain
Living organisms can produce magnetite.
Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense,[66] proposing that this could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation.[67] The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.[68]
Increased iron levels, specifically magnetic iron, have been found in portions of the brain in Alzheimer's patients.[72] Monitoring changes in iron concentrations may make it possible to detect the loss of neurons and the development of neurodegenerative diseases prior to the onset of symptoms[64][72] due to the relationship between magnetite and ferritin.[63] In tissue, magnetite and ferritin can produce small magnetic fields which will interact with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creating contrast.[72] Huntington patients have not shown increased magnetite levels; however, high levels have been found in study mice.[63]
Applications
Due to its high iron content, magnetite has long been a major
Magnetic recording
Catalysis
Approximately 2–3% of the world's energy budget is allocated to the
Magnetite nanoparticles
Magnetite micro- and nanoparticles are used in a variety of applications, from biomedical to environmental. One use is in water purification: in high gradient magnetic separation, magnetite nanoparticles introduced into contaminated water will bind to the suspended particles (solids, bacteria, or plankton, for example) and settle to the bottom of the fluid, allowing the contaminants to be removed and the magnetite particles to be recycled and reused.[78] This method works with radioactive and carcinogenic particles as well, making it an important cleanup tool in the case of heavy metals introduced into water systems.[79]
Another application of magnetic nanoparticles is in the creation of ferrofluids. These are used in several ways. Ferrofluids can be used for targeted drug delivery in the human body.[78] The magnetization of the particles bound with drug molecules allows "magnetic dragging" of the solution to the desired area of the body. This would allow the treatment of only a small area of the body, rather than the body as a whole, and could be highly useful in cancer treatment, among other things. Ferrofluids are also used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology.[80]
Coal mining industry
For the separation of coal from waste, dense medium baths were used. This technique employed the difference in densities between coal (1.3–1.4 tonnes per m3) and shales (2.2–2.4 tonnes per m3). In a medium with intermediate density (water with magnetite), stones sank and coal floated.[81]
Magnetene
Magnetene is a two-dimensional flat sheet of magnetite noted for its ultra-low-friction properties.[82]
Gallery
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Octahedral crystals of magnetite up to 1.8 cm across, on cream colored feldspar crystals, locality: Cerro Huañaquino, Potosí Department, Bolivia
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Magnetite crystals withepitaxialelevations on their faces
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Magnetite in contrasting chalcopyrite matrix
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Magnetite with a rare cubic habit from St. Lawrence County, New York
See also
- Bluing (steel), a process in which steel is partially protected against rust by a layer of magnetite
- Buena Vista Iron Ore District
- Corrosion product
- Ferrite
- Greigite
- Magnesia(in natural mixtures with magnetite)
- Mill scale
- Magnes the shepherd
- Rainbow lattice sunstone
References
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- ^ Barthelmy, Dave. "Magnetite Mineral Data". Mineralogy Database. webmineral.com. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
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- ^ Leaman, David. "Magnetic Rocks - Their Effect on Compass Use and Navigation in Tasmania" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-29. Retrieved 2018-03-23.
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Birds can use the geomagnetic field for compass orientation. Behavioral experiments, mostly with migrating passerines, revealed three characteristics of the avian magnetic compass: (1) it works spontaneously only in a narrow functional window around the intensity of the ambient magnetic field, but can adapt to other intensities, (2) it is an "inclination compass", not based on the polarity of the magnetic field, but the axial course of the field lines, and (3) it requires short-wavelength light from UV to 565 nm Green.
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Using an ultrasensitive superconducting magnetometer in a clean-lab environment, we have detected the presence of ferromagnetic material in a variety of tissues from the human brain.
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A simple calculation shows that magnetosomes moving in response to earth-strength ELF fields are capable of opening trans-membrane ion channels, in a fashion similar to those predicted by ionic resonance models. Hence, the presence of trace levels of biogenic magnetite in virtually all human tissues examined suggests that similar biophysical processes may explain a variety of weak field ELF bioeffects.
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Taken together these data suggest a previously unknown two-molecule sensing mechanism in which KCNJ15/Kir4.2 couples with polyamines in sensing weak electric fields.
- ^ Lovley, Derek; Stolz, John; Nord, Gordon; Phillips, Elizabeth. "Anaerobic production of magnetite by a dissimilatory iron-reducing microorganism" (PDF). geobacter.org. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 22092, USA Department of Biochemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
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There are good reasons to believe that this visual magnetoreceptor processes compass magnetic information which is necessary for migratory orientation.
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X-ray diffraction patterns show that the mature denticles of three extant chiton species are composed of the mineral lepidocrocite and an apatite mineral, probably francolite, in addition to magnetite.
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Further reading
- Lowenstam, Heinz A.; Weiner, Stephen (1989). On Biomineralization. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504977-0.
- Chang, Shih-Bin Robin; Kirschvink, Joseph Lynn (1989). "Magnetofossils, the Magnetization of Sediments, and the Evolution of Magnetite Biomineralization" (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 17: 169–195. .
External links
- Mineral galleries Archived 2011-02-07 at the Wayback Machine
- Bio-magnetics
- Magnetite mining in New Zealand Accessed 25-Mar-09