Magnus Hirschfeld
Magnus Hirschfeld | |
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Scientific Humanitarian Committee, World League for Sexual Reform | |
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Magnus Hirschfeld (14 May 1868 – 14 May 1935) was a
Hirschfeld is regarded as one of the most influential sexologists of the 20th century.
Early life
Hirschfeld was born in
. In 1892, he earned his medical degree.After his studies, he traveled through the United States for eight months, visiting the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and living from the proceeds of his writing for German journals. During his time in Chicago, Hirschfeld became involved with the homosexual subculture in that city.[10] Struck by the essential similarities between the homosexual subcultures of Chicago and Berlin, Hirschfeld first developed his theory about the universality of homosexuality around the world, as he researched in books and newspaper articles about the existence of gay subcultures in Rio de Janeiro, Tangier, and Tokyo.[10] Then he started a naturopathic practice in Magdeburg; in 1896, he moved his practice to Berlin-Charlottenburg. Hirschfeld became interested in gay rights because many of his gay patients took their own lives.[11] In the German language, the word for suicide is Selbstmord ('self-murder'), which carried more judgmental and condemnatory connotations than its English language equivalent, making the subject of suicide a taboo in 19th century Germany.[12]
In particular, Hirschfeld cited the story of one of his patients as a reason for his gay rights activism: a young army officer suffering from depression who killed himself in 1896, leaving behind a suicide note saying that despite his best efforts, he could not end his desires for other men, and so had ended his life out of his guilt and shame.[13] In his suicide note, the officer wrote that he lacked the "strength" to tell his parents the "truth", and spoke of his shame of "that which nearly strangled my heart". The officer could not even bring himself to use the word "homosexuality", which he instead conspicuously referred to as "that" in his note.[12] However, the officer mentioned at the end of his suicide note: "The thought that you [Hirschfeld] could contribute a future when the German fatherland will think of us in more just terms sweetens the hour of my death."[14] Hirschfeld had been treating the officer for depression in 1895–1896, and the use of the term "us" led to speculation that a relationship existed between the two. However, the officer's use of Sie, the formal German word for you, instead of the informal Du, suggests Hirschfeld's relationship with his patient was strictly professional.[14]
At the same time, Hirschfeld was greatly affected by the trial of Oscar Wilde, which he often referred to in his writings.[15] Hirschfeld was struck by the number of his gay patients who had Suizidalnarben ('scars left by suicide attempts'), and often found himself trying to give his patients a reason to live.[16]
Sexual rights activism
Scientific-Humanitarian Committee
Magnus Hirschfeld found a balance between practicing medicine and writing about his findings. Between 1 May–15 October 1896, the Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung ('Great Business Exhibition of Berlin') took place, which featured nine "
After several years as a general practitioner in
Within the group, some of the members rejected Hirschfeld's (and Ulrichs's) view that male homosexuals are, by nature, effeminate. Benedict Friedlaender and some others left the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee and formed another group, the Bund für männliche Kultur or 'Union for Male Culture', which did not exist long. It argued that male–male love is an aspect of virile manliness, rather than a special condition. Under Hirschfeld's leadership, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee gathered 6000 signatures from prominent Germans on a petition to overturn Paragraph 175.[24] Signatories included Albert Einstein, Hermann Hesse, Käthe Kollwitz, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Rainer Maria Rilke, August Bebel, Max Brod, Karl Kautsky, Stefan Zweig, Gerhart Hauptmann, Martin Buber, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, and Eduard Bernstein. The bill was brought before the Reichstag in 1898, but was supported only by a minority from the Social Democratic Party of Germany. August Bebel, a friend of Hirschfeld from his university days, agreed to sponsor the attempt to repeal Paragraph 175.[25]
Hirschfeld considered what would, in a later era, be described as "
A figure frequently mentioned by Hirschfeld to illustrate the "hell experienced by homosexuals" was
Feminism
In 1905, Hirschfeld joined the Bund für Mutterschutz ('League for the Protection of Mothers'), the
In 1906, Hirschfeld was asked as a doctor to examine a prisoner in
Hirschfeld's position, that homosexuality was normal and natural, made him a highly controversial figure at the time, involving him in vigorous debates with other academics, who regarded homosexuality as unnatural and wrong.[32] One of Hirschfeld's leading critics was Austrian Baron Christian von Ehrenfels, who advocated radical changes to society and sexuality to combat the supposed "Yellow Peril", and saw Hirschfeld's theories as a challenge to his view of sexuality.[32] Ehrenfels argued that there were a few "biologically degenerate" homosexuals who lured otherwise "healthy boys" into their lifestyle, making homosexuality into both a choice and a wrong one at that time.[32]
African anthropology
At the same time, Hirschfeld became involved in a debate with a number of anthropologists about the supposed existence of the Hottentottenschürze ('Hottentot apron'), namely the belief that the Khoekoe (known to Westerners as Hottentots) women of southern Africa had abnormally enlarged labia, which made them inclined toward lesbianism.[33] Hirschfeld argued there was no evidence that the Khoekoe women had abnormally large labia, whose supposed existence had fascinated so many Western anthropologists at the time, and that, other than being Black, the bodies of Khoekoe women were no different from German women.[33] One Khoekoe woman, Sarah Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", did have relatively large buttocks and labia, compared to Northern European women, and had been exhibited at a freak show in Europe in the early 19th century, which was the origin of this belief about the Khoekhoe women. Hirschfeld wrote: "The differences appear minimal compared to what is shared" between Khoekoe and German women.[33]
Turning the argument of the anthropologists on their head, Hirschfeld argued that, if same-sex relationships were common among Khoekoe women, and if the bodies of Khoekoe women were essentially the same as Western women, then Western women must have the same tendencies. Hirschfeld's theories about a spectrum of sexuality existing in all of the world's cultures implicitly undercut the binary theories about the differences between various races that was the basis of the claim of
Eulenburg affair
Hirschfeld played a prominent role in the
Most notably, Hirschfeld testified that "homosexuality was part of the plan of nature and creation just like normal love."[36] Hirschfeld's testimony caused outrage all over Germany. The Vossische Zeitung newspaper condemned Hirschfeld in an editorial as "a freak who acted for freaks in the name of pseudoscience".[35] The Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten newspaper declared in an editorial: "Dr. Hirschfeld makes public propaganda under the cover of science, which does nothing but poison our people. Real science should fight against this!"[35] A notable witness at the trial was Lilly von Elbe, former wife of Moltke, who testified that her husband had only had sex with her twice in their entire marriage.[37] Elbe spoke with remarkable openness for the period of her sexual desires and her frustration with a husband who was only interested in having sex with Eulenburg.[38] Elbe's testimony was marked by moments of low comedy when it emerged that she had taken to attacking Moltke with a frying pan in vain attempts to make him have sex with her.[39] The fact that General von Moltke was unable to defend himself from his wife's attacks was taken as proof that he was deficient in his masculinity, which many saw as confirming his homosexuality. At the time, the subject of female sexuality was taboo, and Elbe's testimony was controversial, with many saying that Elbe must be mentally ill because of her willingness to acknowledge her sexuality.[40] Letters to the newspapers at the time, from both men and women, overwhelmingly condemned Elbe for her "disgusting" testimony concerning her sexuality.[40] As an expert witness, Hirschfeld also testified that female sexuality was natural, and Elbe was just a normal woman who was in no way mentally ill.[35] After the jury ruled in favor of Harden, Judge Hugo Isenbiel was enraged by the jury's decision, which he saw as expressing approval for Hirschfeld. He overturned the verdict under the grounds that homosexuals "have the morals of dogs", and insisted that this verdict could not be allowed to stand.[35]
After the verdict was overturned, a second trial found Harden guilty of libel.
Because Eulenburg was a prominent anti-Semite and Hirschfeld was a Jew, during the affair, the völkisch movement came out in support of Eulenburg, whom they portrayed as an Aryan heterosexual, framed by false allegations of homosexuality by Hirschfeld and Harden.[42] Various völkisch leaders, most notably the radical anti-Semitic journalist Theodor Fritsch, used the Eulenburg affair as a chance to "settle the accounts" with the Jews. As a gay Jew, Hirschfeld was relentlessly vilified by the völkisch newspapers.[43] Outside Hirschfeld's house in Berlin, posters were affixed by völkisch activists, which read "Dr. Hirschfeld A Public Danger: The Jews are Our Undoing!".[41] In Nazi Germany, the official interpretation of the Eulenburg affair was that Eulenburg was a straight Aryan whose career was destroyed by false claims of being gay by Jews like Hirschfeld.[42] After the scandal had ended, Hirschfeld concluded that, far from helping the gay rights movement as he had hoped, the ensuing backlash set the movement back.[44] The conclusion drawn by the German government was the opposite of the one that Hirschfeld wanted; the fact that prominent men like General von Moltke and Eulenburg were gay did not lead the government to repeal Paragraph 175 as Hirschfeld had hoped and, instead, the government decided that Paragraph 175 was being enforced with insufficient vigor, leading to a crackdown on homosexuals that was unprecedented and would not be exceeded until the Nazi era.[38]
World War I
In 1914, Hirschfeld was swept up by the national enthusiasm of the
As a Jewish homosexual, Hirschfeld was acutely aware that many Germans did not consider him to be a "proper" German, or even a German at all; so, he reasoned that taking an ultra-patriotic stance might break down prejudices by showing that German Jews and/or homosexuals could also be good, patriotic Germans, rallying to the cry of the Fatherland.[49] By 1916, Hirschfeld was writing pacifist pamphlets, calling for an immediate end to the war.[46] In his 1916 pamphlet Kriegspsychologisches ('The Psychology of War'), Hirschfeld was far more critical of the war than he had been in 1915, emphasizing the suffering and trauma caused by it. He also expressed the opinion that nobody wanted to take responsibility for the war because its horrors were "superhuman in size".[50] He declared that "it is not enough that the war ends with peace; it must end with reconciliation".[50] In late 1918, Hirschfeld together with his sister, Franziska Mann, co-wrote a pamphlet Was jede Frau vom Wahlrecht wissen muß! ('What every woman needs to know about the right to vote!') hailing the November Revolution for granting German women the right to vote and announced the "eyes of the world are now resting on German women".[28]
Interwar period
In 1920, Hirschfeld was badly beaten by a group of völkisch activists who attacked him on the street; he was initially declared dead when the police arrived.[51] In 1921, Hirschfeld organised the First Congress for Sexual Reform, which led to the formation of the World League for Sexual Reform. Congresses were held in Copenhagen (1928), London (1929), Vienna (1930), and Brno (1932).
Hirschfeld was both quoted and caricatured in the press as a vociferous expert on sexual matters; during his 1931 tour of the United States, the Hearst newspaper chain dubbed him "the Einstein of Sex". He identified as a campaigner and a scientist, investigating and cataloging many varieties of sexuality, not just homosexuality. He developed a system which categorised 64 possible types of sexual intermediary, ranging from masculine, heterosexual male to feminine, homosexual male, including those he described under the term transvestite (German: Transvestit), which he coined in 1910, and those he described under the term transsexuals, a term he coined in 1923.[52] He also made a distinction between transsexualism and intersexuality.[52][53] At this time, Hirschfeld and the Institute for Sexual Sciences issued a number of transvestite passes to trans people in order to prevent them from being harassed by the police.[54][55]
Anders als die Andern
Hirschfeld co-wrote and acted in the 1919 film
In May 1919, when the film premiered in Berlin, the First World War was still a very fresh memory and German conservatives, who already hated Hirschfeld, seized upon his Francophile speech in the film praising France for legalizing homosexuality in 1792 as evidence that gay rights were "un-German".[56] At the end of the film, when the protagonist Paul Körner commits suicide, his lover Kurt is planning on killing himself, when Hirschfeld appears to tell him: "If you want to honor the memory of your dead friend, you must not take your own life, but instead preserve it to change the prejudices whose victim – one of the countless many – this dead man was. That is the task of the living I assign you. Just as Zola struggled on behalf of a man who innocently languished in prison, what matters now is to restore honor and justice to the many thousands before us, with us, and after us. Through knowledge to justice!"[57] The reference to Émile Zola's role in the Dreyfus affair was intended to draw a parallel between homophobia and anti-Semitism, while Hirschfeld's repeated use of the word "us" was an implied admission of his own homosexuality.[57] The anti-suicide message of Anders als die Andern reflected Hirschfeld's interest in the subject of the high suicide rate among homosexuals, and was intended to give hope to gay audiences.[57] The film ends with Hirschfeld opening a copy of the penal code of the Reich and striking out Paragraph 175 with a giant X.[57]
Institut für Sexualwissenschaft
Under the more
Giese and Hirschfeld were a well-known couple in the gay scene in Berlin where Hirschfeld was popularly known as Tante Magnesia. Tante ('aunt') was a German slang expression for a gay man but did not mean, as some claim, that Hirschfeld himself cross-dressed.[61] People from around Europe and beyond came to the institute to gain a clearer understanding of their sexuality. Christopher Isherwood writes about his and W. H. Auden's visit in his book Christopher and His Kind; they were calling on Francis Turville-Petre, a friend of Isherwood's who was an active member of the Scientific Humanitarian Committee. Other celebrated visitors included German novelist and playwright Gerhart Hauptmann, German artist Christian Schad, French writers René Crevel and André Gide, Russian director Sergei Eisenstein, and American poet Elsa Gidlow.[58]
In addition, a number of noted individuals lived for longer or shorter periods of time in the various rooms available for rent or as free accommodations in the Institute complex. Among the residents were Isherwood and Turville-Petre; literary critic and philosopher
The Institute and Hirschfeld's work are depicted in
World tour
In March 1930, the Social Democratic chancellor
America and a "straight turn"
In 1930, Hirschfeld predicted that there would be no future for people like himself in Germany, and he would have to move abroad.[67] In November 1930, Hirschfeld arrived in New York City, ostensibly on a speaking tour about sex, but in fact to see if it was possible for him to settle in the United States.[65] Significantly, in his speeches on this American tour, Hirschfeld, when speaking in German, called for the legalization of homosexuality, but when speaking in English did not mention the subject of homosexuality, instead urging Americans to be more open-minded about heterosexual sex.[68] The New York Times described Hirschfeld as having come to America to "study the marriage question", while the German-language New Yorker Volkszeitung newspaper described Hirschfeld as wanting to "discuss love's natural turns" – the phrase "love's natural turns" was Hirschfeld's way of presenting his theory that there was a wide spectrum of human sexuality, all of which were "natural".[68] Hirschfeld realized that most Americans did not want to hear about his theory of homosexuality as natural. Aware of a strong xenophobic tendency in the United States, where foreigners seen as troublemakers were unwelcome, Hirschfeld tailored his message to American tastes.[69]
In an interview with the Germanophile American journalist
At least part of the reason for his "straight turn" was financial; a Dutch firm had been marketing Titus Pearls (Titus-Perlen) pills, which were presented in Europe as a cure for "scattered nerves" and in the United States as an
Asia
After his American tour, Hirschfeld went to Asia in February 1931. Hirschfeld had been invited to Japan by
After staying in the
Africa and the Middle East
In Egypt, where Hirschfeld and Tao traveled to next, arriving in November 1931, Hirschfeld wrote "to the Arabs... homoerotic love practice is something natural and that
Later life and exile
On 20 July 1932, the Chancellor
By the time of the book burning, Hirschfeld had long since left Germany for a speaking tour that took him around the world; he never returned to Germany. In March 1932, he stopped briefly in Athens, spent several weeks in Vienna and then settled in Zurich, Switzerland, in August 1932.[88] While he was there, he worked on a book that recounted his experiences and observations while he was on his world tour and it was published in 1933 as Die Weltreise eines Sexualforschers (Brugg, Switzerland: Bözberg-Verlag, 1933). It was published in an English translation in the United States under the title Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935) and in England under the title Women East and West: Impressions of a Sex Expert (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, 1935). Hirschfeld stayed near Germany, hoping that he would be able to return to Berlin if the country's political situation improved. With the Nazi regime's unequivocal rise to power coinciding with the completion of his work on his tour book, he decided to go into exile in France. On his 65th birthday, 14 May 1933, Hirschfeld arrived in Paris, where he lived in a luxury apartment building on 24 Avenue Charles Floquet, facing the Champ de Mars.[88] Hirschfeld lived with Li and Giese.[89] In 1934, Giese was involved in a dispute at a public bathhouse that Hirschfeld called "trifling", but it led French authorities to expel him.[89] Giese's fate left Hirschfeld very depressed.[89]
A year-and-a-half after arriving in France, in November 1934, Hirschfeld moved south to Nice, a seaside resort on the Mediterranean coast. He lived in a luxurious apartment building with a view of the sea across an enormous garden on the Promenade des Anglais.[90] Throughout his stay in France, he continued researching, writing, campaigning and working to establish a French successor to his lost institute in Berlin.[88] Hirschfeld's sister, Recha Tobias, did not leave Germany and died in the Theresienstadt Ghetto on 28 September 1942 (the cause of death entered in her death certificate was "heart weakness").[59][60][91] While in France, Hirschfeld finished a book that he had been writing during his world tour, Rassismus (Racism). It was published posthumously in English in 1938.[92] Hirschfeld wrote that the purpose of the book was to explore "the racial theory which underlines the doctrine of racial war", saying that he himself was "numbered among the many thousands who have fallen victim to the practical realization of this theory."[92] Unlike many who saw the völkisch ideology of the Nazi regime as an aberration and a retrogression from modernity, Hirschfeld insisted that it had deep roots, going back to the German Enlightenment in the 18th century, and it was a part of modernity rather than an aberration from it.[93] He added that, in the 19th century, an ideology that divided all of humanity into biologically different races – white, black, yellow, brown, and red – as devised by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – served as a way of turning prejudices into a "universal truth", apparently validated by science.[93] In turn, Hirschfeld held the view that this pseudoscientific way of dividing humanity was the basis of Western thinking about modernity, with whites being praised as the "civilized" race in contrast to the other races, which were dismissed for their "barbarism"; such thinking was used to justify white supremacy.[93]
In this way, he argued that the völkisch racism of the National Socialist regime was only an extreme variant of prejudices that were held throughout the
In search of sanctuary, I have found my way to that country, the nobility of whose traditions, and whose ever-present charm, have already been as balm to my soul. I shall be glad and grateful if I can spend some few years of peace and repose in France and Paris, and still more grateful to be enabled to repay the hospitality accorded to me, by making available those abundant stores of knowledge acquired throughout my career.[95]
Death
On his 67th birthday, 14 May 1935, Hirschfeld died of a heart attack in his apartment at the Gloria Mansions I building at 63
On 14 May 2010, to mark the 75th anniversary of Hirschfeld's death, a French national organization, the Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle (MDH), in partnership with the new LGBT Community Center of Nice (Centre LGBT
Legacy
According to Shtetl, Hirschfeld's "radical ideas changed the way Germans thought about sexuality."
In 1982, a group of German researchers and activists founded the Magnus Hirschfeld Society (German: Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft e.V.) in West Berlin, in anticipation of the approaching 50th anniversary of the destruction of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science. Ten years later, the society established a Berlin-based center for research on the history of sexology.[101] Since the late 20th century, researchers associated with the Magnus Hirschfeld Society have succeeded in tracking down previously dispersed and lost records and artifacts of Hirschfeld's life and work. They have brought together many of these materials at the society's archives in Berlin.[102][103] At an exhibition at the Schwules Museum in Berlin from 7 December 2011 to 31 March 2012, the society publicly displayed a selection of these collections for the first time.[104]
The
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Hirschfeld's tomb in the Caucade Cemetery in Nice, France, photographed the day before the 75th anniversary of his death
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Bust of Magnus Hirschfeld in the Schwules Museum, Berlin
Portrayals in popular culture
Hirschfeld has been portrayed in a number of works of popular culture both during his lifetime and subsequently. Following is a sampling of genres and titles:
Podcasts
Season 4 episode 2 of the podcast Making Gay History is about Hirschfeld,[109] as is a Special Episode in Season 5 of the Bad Gays Podcast.[110]
Caricature
Hirschfeld was a frequent target of caricatures in the popular press during his lifetime. Historian James Steakley reproduces several examples in his German-language book Die Freunde des Kaisers. Die Eulenburg-Affäre im Spiegel zeitgenössischer Karikaturen (Hamburg: MännerschwarmSkript, 2004). Additional examples appear in the French-language book Derrière "lui" (L'Homosexualité en Allemagne) (Paris: E. Bernard, [1908]) by John Grand-Carteret .
Film and television
- Different from the Others (Germany, 1919); directed by Richard Oswald; cowritten by Oswald and Magnus Hirschfeld. Hirschfeld appears in a cameo playing himself. Karl Giese, the young man who subsequently became Hirschfeld's lover, also had a part in the film.
- Race d'Ep: Un Siècle d'Images de l'Homosexualité (France, 1979); directed by Lionel Soukaz; cowritten by Soukaz and Guy Hocquenghem; released in the United States under the title The Homosexual Century. An experimental film portraying 100 years of homosexual history in four episodes, one of which focuses on Hirschfeld and his work. French gay writer Pierre Hahn played the role of Hirschfeld.[111][112][113]
- Desire: Sexuality in Germany, 1910–1945 (United Kingdom, 1989); directed by Stuart Marshall. A feature-length documentary tracing the emergence of the homosexual subculture and the homosexual emancipation movement in pre-World War II Germany – and their destruction by the Nazi regime.Robin Wood, Marshall "treats the burning of Hirschfeld's library and the closing of his Institute of Sexual Science as the film's... central moment...."[115]
- A segment on Hirschfeld appears in episode 19 of Real Sex, first shown on HBO on 7 February 1998.
- biopicinspired by Hirschfeld's life and work.
- Paragraph 175 (US, 2000); directed by Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman. A feature-length documentary on the persecution of homosexuals during the Nazi regime. The first part of the film provides a brief overview of the history of the homosexual emancipation movement in Germany from the late 19th century through the early 1930s, with Hirschfeld and his work prominently featured.[115]
- Several episodes of the second season of the Amazon television series Transparent (U.S., 2014–2019) include a portrayal of Hirschfeld and his institute. Hirschfeld was portrayed by Bradley Whitford.
Fiction
- Cassell & Company). U.S. Edition: New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1940. The novel opens with the protagonist visiting the tomb of a famed Austrian sex expert, Dr. R. Ellendorf, in a cemetery in Nice. At the tomb, he meets the late doctor's protégé, a Chinese student named Kho Ling. The character of Ling refers to the memory of his mentor at numerous points in the novel. From the description of the settings and the characters, Ellendorf clearly was inspired by Hirschfeld, and Ling by Hirschfeld's last partner and heir, Li Shiu Tong (Tao Li).[116]
- Zettels Traum(Frankfurt-am-Main: S. Fischer Verlag). Hirschfeld is quoted often in this novel about sexuality.
- Nicolas Verdan (2011). Le Patient du docteur Hirschfeld (Orbe, Switzerland: Bernard Campiche). A French-language spy thriller inspired by the sacking of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science by the Nazis.
Works
Hirschfeld's works are listed in the following bibliography, which is extensive but not comprehensive:
- Steakley, James D. The Writings of Magnus Hirschfeld: A Bibliography. Toronto: Canadian Gay Archives, 1985.
The following have been translated into English:
- The Objective Diagnosis of Homosexuality. Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash (1899; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2023).
- Urnish People: Causes and Nature of Uranism. Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash (1903; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2022).
- What Unites and Divides the Human Race? Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash (1919; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2020).
- Why Do Nations Hate Us? A Reflection on the Psychology of War. Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash (1915; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2020).
- Memoir: Celebrating 25 Years of the First LGBT Organization (1897–1923). Translation of Von Einst bis Jetzt by M. Lombardi-Nash (1923; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2019).
- Paragraph 175 of the Imperial Penal Code Book: The Homosexual Question Judged by Contemporaries. Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash (1898; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2020).
- My Trial for Obscenity. Translated by M. Lombardi-Nash. (1904; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2021).
- Annual Reports of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (1900–1903): The World's First Successful LGBT Organization. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1901-1903; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2021).
- Annual Reports of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (1904–1905): The World's First Successful LGBT Organization. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1905; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2022).
- Annual Reports of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (1906–1908): The World's First Successful LGBT Organization. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1908; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2022).
- Sappho and Socrates: How Does One Explain the Love of Men and Women to Persons of Their Own Sex? Translated by Michael Lombardi-Nash. (1896; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2019).
- Transvestites: The Erotic Drive to Cross-Dress. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1910; Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991).
- With Max Tilke, The Erotic Drive to Cross-Dress: Illustrated Part: Supplement to Transvestites. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1912; Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts 2022).
- The Homosexuality of Men and Women. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash. 2nd ed. (1920; Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2000).
- The Sexual History of the World War (1930), New York City, Panurge Press, 1934; significantly abridged translation and adaptation of the original German edition: Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges, 2 vols., Verlag für Sexualwissenschaft, Schneider & Co., Leipzig & Vienna, 1930. The plates from the German edition are not included in the Panurge Press translation, but a small sampling appear in a separately issued portfolio, Illustrated Supplement to The Sexual History of the World War, New York City, Panurge Press, n.d.
- Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (1933); translated by O. P. Green (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935).
- Sex in Human Relationships, London, John Lane The Bodley Head, 1935; translated from the French volume L'Ame et l'amour, psychologie sexologique (Paris: Gallimard, 1935) by John Rodker.
- Racism (1938), translated by Eden and Cedar Paul. This denunciation of racial discrimination was not influential at the time, although it seems prophetic in retrospect.[117]
Autobiographical
- Hirschfeld, Magnus. Von einst bis jetzt: Geschichte einer homosexuellen Bewegung 1897–1922. Schriftenreihe der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft Nr. 1. Berlin: Rosa Winkel, 1986. (Reprint of a series of articles by Hirschfeld originally published in Die Freundschaft, 1920–21.)
- M.H. [Magnus Hirschfeld], "Hirschfeld, Magnus (Autobiographical Sketch)", in Victor Robinson (ed.), Encyclopaedia Sexualis, New York City: Dingwall-Rock, 1936, pp. 317–321.
- Hirschfeld, Magnus. Testament. Heft II; introduced and annotated by Ralf Dose. Berlin: Hentrich und Hentrich Verlag, 2013. (Critical edition of the only surviving volume of Hirschfeld's personal journal.)
See also
- Harry Benjamin, an associate of Hirschfeld who brought his theories to the United States
- Der Eigene: world's first gay journal, Berlin, 1896–1932
- First homosexual movement
- List of sex therapists
- Willi Pape, a famous cabaret performer who appeared in Hirschfeld's 1912 book on transvestites
References
- ISBN 1136761810), page 374
- ISBN 1136761810), page 374
- ISBN 978-0-313-34039-0
- PMID 23002292.
- ^ "The great hunt for the world's first LGBTQ archive". History. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ Marhoefer, Laurie (21 September 2023). "New Research Reveals How the Nazis Targeted Transgender People". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- ISBN 0-7582-0100-1.
- ISBN 9781583674383.
- ^ Aus der Geschichte des Colberger Lyceums. C. F. Post. 1867.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 21.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 37.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 40.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 39.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 41.
- ^ a b c d Bauer 2017, p. 55.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 48.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 22.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 23.
- ISBN 978-1-57392-705-5. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
- ^ Heinrich Gerhard Eduard Oberg (1858–1917)
- ^ Franz Vollrath Carl Wilhelm Joseph von Bülow (1861–1915)
- S2CID 19788523.
- The Washington Blade. 3 October 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
...Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld founded the gay organization Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee (Scientific-Humanitarian Committee). Its first action was to draft a petition against Paragraph 175 with 6,000 signatures of prominent people in the arts, politics and the medical profession; it failed to have any effect.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 25.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 49.
- ^ a b c Bauer 2017, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Bauer 2017, p. 80.
- ^ Elena Mancini, Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p. 25
- ^ a b c Bauer 2017, p. 28.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 28–29.
- ^ a b c Dickinson 2002, p. 272.
- ^ a b c d Bauer 2017, p. 30.
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- ^ a b c d e f g Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 100
- ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 128.
- ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 103.
- ^ a b Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 pp. 103–104
- ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 104
- ^ a b Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 pp. 103–105.
- ^ a b c d e f g Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 101.
- ^ a b Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 169
- ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 pp. 169–170
- ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 139
- ^ Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 111
- ^ a b Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 112
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 31–32.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 32.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 33.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 34.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 97.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-29621-0. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
- ^ "Magnus Hirschfeld and Transgender People". Transgender Map. 13 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
- ^ Gershon, Livia (18 November 2018). "Gender Identity in Weimar Germany". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
- ^ Frost, Natasha (2 November 2017). "The Early 20th-Century ID Cards That Kept Trans People Safe From Harassment". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
- ^ a b Steakley 1999, p. 183.
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-58367-437-6.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 81.
- ^ a b "Památník Terezín". Archive.pamatnik-terezin.cz. 21 November 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 90.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 86.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Marhoefer 2011, p. 538.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 104.
- ^ a b Marhoefer 2011, pp. 541–542.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 104, 106.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 105.
- ^ a b c d Bauer 2017, p. 106.
- ^ a b c d e Bauer 2017, p. 107.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 108.
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- ^ a b c d Bauer 2017, p. 113.
- ^ Bauer 2017, pp. 107, 110.
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- ^ Bauer 2017, p. 121.
- ^ Marhoefer, Laurie Sex and the Weimar Republic: German Homosexual Emancipation and the Rise of the Nazis, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015 pp. 185–187.
- ^ a b c Bauer 2017, p. 92.
- ^ ISBN 0-7043-2569-1
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- ^ a b Hans P. Soetaert & Donald W. McLeod, "Un Lion en hiver: Les Derniers jours de Magnus Hirschfeld à Nice (1934–1935)" in Gérard Koskovich (ed.), Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935): Un Pionnier du mouvement homosexuel confronté au nazisme (Paris: Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle, 2010).
- ^ "| Database of digitised documents | Holocaust". Holocaust.cz. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d e Bauer 2017, p. 15.
- ^ Gérard Koskovich, "Des Dates clés de la vie de Magnus Hirschfeld", in Koskovich (ed.), Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935).
- ^ Magnus Hirschfeld, Sex in Human Relationships (London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1936), pp. xix–xx; translated from the original French edition by John Rodker.
- ^ Donald W. McLeod & Hans P. Soetaert, "'Il regarde la mer et pense à son idéal': Die letzten Tage von Magnus Hirschfeld in Nizza, 1934–1935"; Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, no. 45 (July 2010): pp. 14–33.
- ^ Frédéric Maurice, "Magnus Hirschfeld, vedette posthume du festival 'Espoirs de Mai' à Nice,'" Têtu.com (16 May 2010).
- ^ Blum, Steven (31 January 2014). "Berlin's Einstein Of Sex". Shtetl. Montreal.
- ^ Bullough, p. 25
- ^ "Our History". Nlgf.ie. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
- ^ Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft (n.d.), "Short information about the society", Magnus Hirschfeld Society website; retrieved 2011-29-10.
- ^ Dose, Ralf (18 June 2012). "Thirty Years of Collecting Our History, or How to Find Treasure Troves"; LGBT ALMS Blog; retrieved 3 July 2012.
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- ^ Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft E.V. (31 August 2011). Untitled press release.
- ^ For background on the campaign to establish the foundation, see "Aktionsbündnis Magnus-Hirschfeld-Stiftung" (in German) on the website of the Magnus Hirschfeld Society.
- ^ Litwinschuh, Jörg (30 November 2011). "Magnus Hirschfeld Foundation established"; website of the Bundesstiftung Magnus Hirschfeld; retrieved 2 July 2012.
- ^ "Season Four". Making Gay History. 24 November 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ "Special Episode: Magnus Hirschfeld". Bad Gays. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
- ^ Murray, Raymond (1994). Images in the Dark: An Encyclopedia of Gay and Lesbian Film and Video (Philadelphia: TLA Publications), p. 430.
- ^ "The Homosexual Century"; IMDb.
- ^ Sibalis, Michael (2001). "Hahn, Pierre (1936–81)", in Robert Aldrich & Gary Wotherspoon (eds.), Who's Who in Contemporary Gay & Lesbian History From World War II to the Present Day (London & New York: Routledge), pages 175f.
- ^ Marshall, Stuart (1991). "The Contemporary Political Use of Gay History: The Third Reich", in Bad Object Choices (eds.), How Do I Look? Queer Film and Video (Seattle, Bay Press).
- ^ a b Wood, Robin (2002). "Gays and the Holocaust: Two Documentaries", in Shelley Hornstein & Florence Jacobowitz, Image and Remembrance: Representation and the Holocaust (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press).
- ^ Bauer, J. Edgar (2006–11). "Magnus Hirschfeld: Panhumanism and the Sexual Cultures of Asia"; Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, No. 14; see note 71.
- ISBN 978-1583674390.
Further reading
Biographies
- Bauer, J. Edgar. "On Behalf of Hermaphrodites and Mongrels: Refocusing the Reception of Magnus Hirschfeld's Critical Thought on Sexuality and Race." Journal of homosexuality (2019): 1-25.
- Bauer, Heike (2017). The Hirschfeld Archives: Violence, Death, and Modern Queer Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1439914335. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- Domeier, Norman: "Magnus Hirschfeld", in: 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2016-04-07. .
- Dose, Ralf. Magnus Hirschfeld: Deutscher, Jude, Weltbürger. Teetz: Hentrich und Hentrich, 2005. (in German)
- Dose, Ralf. Magnus Hirschfeld: The Origins of the Gay Liberation Movement. New York City: Monthly Review Press, 2014; revised and expanded edition of Dose's 2005 German-language biography.
- Herzer, Manfred. Magnus Hirschfeld: Leben und Werk eines jüdischen, schwulen und sozialistischen Sexologen. 2nd edition. Hamburg: Männerschwarm, 2001. (in German)
- Koskovich, Gérard (ed.). Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935). Un pionnier du mouvement homosexuel confronté au nazisme. Paris: Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle, 2010. (in French)
- Kotowski, Elke-Vera & Julius H. Schoeps (eds.). Der Sexualreformer Magnus Hirschfeld. Ein Leben im Spannungsfeld von Wissenschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft. Berlin: Bebra, 2004. (in German)
- Leng, Kirsten. "Magnus Hirschfeld's Meanings: Analysing Biography and the Politics of Representation." German History 35.1 (2017): 96–116.
- Mancini, Elena. Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
- Steakley, James. "Per scientiam ad justitiam: Magnus Hirschfeld and the Sexual Politics of Innate Homosexuality", in Science and Homosexualities, ed. Vernon A. Rosario. New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 133–54.
- Wolff, Charlotte. Magnus Hirschfeld: A Portrait of a Pioneer in Sexology. London: Quartet, 1986.
Others
- Beachy, Robert. Gay Berlin: Birthplace of a Modern Identity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.
- Blasius, Mark & Shane Phelan (eds.) We Are Everywhere: A Historical Source Book of Gay and Lesbian Politics. New York: Routledge, 1997. See chapter: "The Emergence of a Gay and Lesbian Political Culture in Germany".
- Bullough, Vern L. (2002). Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context. New York, Harrington Park Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56023-193-9.
- Dickinson, Edward Ross (May 2002). "Sex, Masculinity, and the "Yellow Peril": Christian von Ehrenfels' Program for a Revision of the European Sexual Order, 1902–1910". German Studies Review. 25 (2): 255–284. PMID 20373550.
- Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland, 1990.
- Friedman, Sara, "Projecting Fears and Hopes: Gay Rights on the German Screen after World War I", Blog of the Journal of the History of Ideas, 28 May 2019.
- Gordon, Mel. Voluptuous Panic: The Erotic World of Weimar Berlin. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2000.
- Grau, Günter (ed.) Hidden Holocaust? Gay and Lesbian Persecution in Germany, 1933–45. New York: Routledge, 1995.
- Grossman, Atina. Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
- Haeberle E.J. " Re-print of Die Sexualitaet des Mannes und des Weibes, with commentary by E.J. Haeberle. De Gruyter, 1984, ISBN 3110101300
- Haeberle E.J. Anfänge der Sexualwissenschaft, De Gruyter, 1983. ISBN 3110099322
- Haeberle E.J. "The birth of Sexology". World Association for Sexology, 1983.
- Lauritsen, John and Thorstad, David. The Early Homosexual Rights Movement, 1864–1935. 2nd rev. edition. Novato, CA: Times Change Press, 1995.
- Marhoefer, Laurie (October 2011). "Degeneration, Sexual Freedom, and the Politics of the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933". German Studies Review. 34 (3): 529–549. ISSN 0149-7952.
- Steakley, James D. The Homosexual Emancipation Movement in Germany. New York: Arno, 1975.
- Steakley, James (1999). "Cinema and Censorship in the Weimar Republic: The Case of Anders als Die Andern". Film History. 11 (2): 181–203. ISSN 0149-7952.
- Steakley, James, "Anders als die Andern:" Ein Film und seine Geschichte. Hamburg: Männerschwarm Verlag 2007. (review by Dirk Naguschewski in HSozKult, 2008)
- Marhoefer, Laurie (4 May 2022). Racism and the Making of Gay Rights: A sexologist, his student, and the empire of queer love. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1487505813.
External links
- Biography (in German) on the web site of the Bundesstiftung Magnus Hirschfeld (Magnus Hirschfeld National Foundation), Berlin
- Magnus Hirschfeld – Leben und Werk (in German) Biographical information on the web site of the Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft (Magnus Hirschfeld Society), Berlin
- Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft: Online Exhibit on the Institute for Sexual Science
- Works by Magnus Hirschfeld at Faded Page (Canada)
- Works by or about Magnus Hirschfeld at Internet Archive
- Works by Magnus Hirschfeld at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Magnus Hirschfeld at Holocaust Encyclopedia