Magnus Maximus

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Maxen" redirects here. For other uses, see Maxen (disambiguation).

Magnus Maximus
Sevira"
  • "Maxima"
    • ReligionNicene Christianity

    Magnus Maximus[1] (Latin: [ˈmaŋnus ˈmaksimus]; Welsh: Macsen Wledig [ˈmaksɛn ˈwlɛdɪɡ]; died 28 August 388) was Roman emperor in the West from 383 to 388. He usurped the throne from emperor Gratian.

    Born in

    Battle of Poetovio in 388. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britannia.[2]

    Life

    Birth, army career

    Maximus was born in Gallaecia, Hispania, on the estates of Count Theodosius (the Elder) of the Theodosian dynasty, to whom he claimed to be related.[3][4][5] Most of his early life is unknown as the earliest mention of him in the historical record was of him being a junior officer possibly in Britain in 368 during the Great Conspiracy as he assisted Theodosius in defeating barbarians and criminals in Britannia.[6] Maximus would become a distinguished general in the following years; as he would gain the support of his fellow soldiers and the admiration of the Romano-Britons whom he defended, which would lead to his eventual immortalisation in Welsh legend in the centuries following.[7] He served under Count Theodosius in Africa in 373.[8] Assigned to Britain in 380, he defeated an incursion of the Picts and Scots in 381.[3]

    Rebellion and bid for the throne

    The Western emperor Gratian had received a number of Alans into his bodyguard, and was accused of showing favouritism towards these Iranian speaking foreigners at the expense of Roman citizens.[3] In 383 the discontented Roman army proclaimed Maximus emperor in Gratian's place. Orosius, who wrote that Maximus was “an energetic and able man and one worthy of the throne had he not risen to it by usurpation, contrary to his oath of allegiance,” claimed that he was proclaimed emperor against his will,[9] but Zosimus portrays him as inciting the troops to rebel against Gratian, as he was upset about Theodosius becoming emperor while he himself was not promoted.[10]

    Maximus went to

    Augustus in the West.[11]

    Administration

    Maximus made his capital at Augusta Treverorum (Treves, Trier) in Gaul, and ruled Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa. He issued coinage and a number of edicts reorganising Gaul's system of provinces. Some historians believe Maximus may have founded the office of the Comes Britanniarum as well, although it was probably Stilicho who created the permanent office.[12]

    Maximus was a stern persecutor of

    Gnostic heresy already condemned in Roman law under Diocletian, and states that Magnus Maximus had them "caught and exterminated with the greatest zeal".[15]

    In a threatening letter addressed to Valentinian II, most likely composed between the spring of 384 and the summer of 387, Maximus complains of Valentinian's actions towards Ambrose and adherents of the Nicean Creed, writing: "Can it be that Your Serenity, venerable to me, thinks that a religion which has once taken root in the minds of men, which God himself has established, can be uprooted?" in response to "the disturbance and convulsion of Catholic law."[16]

    Conversely, Maximus's edict of 387/388, which censured Christians at Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, was condemned by bishop Ambrose, who said people exclaimed, "the emperor has become a Jew".[17]

    Final conflicts and execution

    In 387, Maximus managed to force emperor Valentinian II out of

    Battle of Poetovio,[18][19] and retreated to Aquileia. Meanwhile, the Franks under Marcomer
    had taken the opportunity to invade northern Gaul, at the same time further weakening Maximus's position.

    Poetovio.[20] Maximus surrendered in Aquileia, and although he pleaded for mercy was executed. The Senate passed a decree of Damnatio memoriae against him. However, his mother and at least two daughters were spared.[21] Theodosius's trusted general Arbogast strangled Maximus's son, Victor, at Trier in the fall of the same year.[22]

    Fate of family

    It is not recorded what happened to Maximus's family after his downfall. He is known to have had a wife, who is recorded as having sought spiritual counsel from

    St. Martin of Tours
    during his time at Trier. Her ultimate fate, and even her name (but see the Welsh tradition below), have not been preserved in definitive historical records. The same is true of Maximus's mother and daughters, other than that they were spared by Theodosius I.

    One of Maximus's daughters may have been married to

    Sevira, on the Pillar of Eliseg (9th century), an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales, which claims that she married Vortigern, king of the Britons.[24]

    Role in British and Breton history

    Maximus's bid for imperial power in 383 coincides with the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Britain, the western Pennines, and the fortress of Deva. Coins dated later than 383 have been found in excavations along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that troops were not entirely stripped from it, as was once thought.[25] In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae written c. 540, Gildas says that Maximus "deprived" Britain not only of its Roman troops, but also of its "armed bands...governors and of the flower of her youth", never to return.[26]

    Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend supports that this happened, with stories such as Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), where he not only marries a wondrous British woman (thus making British descendants probable), but also gives her father sovereignty over Britain (thus formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves).

    The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus (referred to as Macsen/Maxen Wledig, or Emperor Maximus) the role of founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of Powys and Gwent.[27][28] He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales.[29]

    After he became emperor of the West, Maximus returned to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the Damnonii, Votadini, and Novantae (all located in modern Scotland). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs—the later rulers of Galloway, home to the Novantae, claimed Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.[25]

    The ninth century Historia Brittonum gives another account of Maximus and assigns him an important role:

    The seventh emperor was Maximianus, He withdrew from Britain with all its military force, slew Gratianus the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, families, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Iovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is Cruc Occident. These are the Armoric Britons, and they remain there to the present day. In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance.

    Modern historians believe that this idea of mass British troop settlement in Brittany by Maximus may very well reflect some reality, as it accords with archaeological and other historical evidence and later Breton traditions.

    Aetius's defence against Attila the Hun, and its king Riothamus was subsequently mentioned in contemporary documents as an ally of Rome's against the Goths. Despite its continued usage of two distinct languages, Breton and Gallo
    , and extensive invasions and conquests by Franks and Vikings, Armorica retained considerable cultural cohesion into the 13th century.

    Maximus also established a military base in his native Gallaecia, which persisted as a cultural entity despite occupation by the Suebi in 409, see Kingdom of Galicia.

    Aetius sent large numbers of

    Battle of the Catalunian Plains
    . The Alans evidently assimilated quickly into the local Celtic cultures, contributing their own legends, e.g., to the Arthurian Cycle of romances.

    Welsh legend

    Legendary versions of Maximus's career in which he marries the Welsh princess

    Elen may have circulated in popular tradition in Welsh-speaking areas from an early date. Although the story of Helen and Maximus's meeting is almost certainly fictional, there is some evidence for the basic claims. He is certainly given a prominent place in the earliest version of the Welsh Triads which are believed to date from c. 1100 and which reflect older traditions in some cases. Welsh poetry also frequently refers to Macsen as a figure of comparison with later Welsh leaders. These legends come down to us in two separate versions.[29]

    Geoffrey of Monmouth

    Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to intend to depict Magnus Maximus. Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.)
    Wikisource has original text related to this article:

    According to Geoffrey of Monmouth's fictional Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136), the basis for many English and Welsh legends, Maximianus, as he calls him, was a Roman senator, a nephew of Coel Hen through Coel's brother Ioelinus, and king of the Britons following the death of Octavius (Eudaf Hen). Geoffrey writes this came about because Octavius wanted to wed his daughter to just such a powerful half-Roman-half-Briton and to give the kingship of Britain, as a dowry, to that husband, so he sent a message to Rome offering his daughter to Maximian.[30]

    Caradocus, the Duke of Cornwall, had suggested and supported the marriage between Octavius's daughter and Maximian. Maximian accepted the offer and left Rome for Britain. Geoffrey claims further that Maximian gathered an army as he sacked Frankish towns along the way. He invaded Clausentum (modern Southampton) unintentionally and nearly fought the army of the Britons under Conan Meriadoc before agreeing to a truce. Following further negotiations, Maximian was given the kingship of Britain and Octavius retired. Five years into his kingship, Magnus Maximus assembled a vast fleet and invaded Gaul, leaving Britain in the control of Caradocus.[30] Upon reaching the kingdom of Armorica (historically, the region between the Loire and Seine rivers, later comprising Brittany, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine), he defeated the king and killed thousands of inhabitants. Before departing to Rome, he summoned Conanus, the rebellious nephew of Octavius, and asked him to rule as king of the land, which was renamed Brittany. Conan's men married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. Geoffrey of Monmouth presents this legend to explain the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw, as originating from lled-taw or "half-silent". Given that Conan was well established in genealogies as the founder of Brittany, this account is certainly connected to an older tradition than Geoffrey.

    Following the death of Caradocus, rule of Britain as regent passed to Dionotus, who – facing a foreign invasion – appealed to Maximus, who finally sent a man named Gracianus Municeps with two legions to stop the attack. He killed many thousands before the invaders fled to Ireland. Maximus died in Rome soon after and Dionotus became the official king of the Britons. Unfortunately, before he could begin his reign, Gracianus took hold of the crown and made himself king over Dionotus.

    While a broadly positive account of Maximian, the History concludes with the success of the barbarian invaders, and laments, "Alas for the absence of so many warlike soldiers through the madness of Maximianus!".[30]

    The Dream of Macsen Wledig

    Wikisource has original text related to this article:
    Main article:
    The Dream of Macsen Wledig

    Although the Mabinogion tale The Dream of Macsen Wledig is written in later manuscripts than Geoffrey's version, the two accounts are so different that scholars agree the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition.

    Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Wales, daughter of a chieftain based at

    Helen or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride.[31]

    In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With the help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother Conanus (Welsh: Cynan Meriadoc, Breton: Conan Meriadeg), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany.[citation needed]

    His love Helen (Elen) was travelling along the Roman roads in a Snowdonian valley when she was given grievous news over her husband. Near a well she bent to her knees and cried "croes awr i mi yw hon" translated "a cross hour for me is this", and laid down and died. The village was named Croesor, a Snowdonian village nestled on the knees of the mountain Cnicht. This is why the village was called Croesor, and although it is close in a sense to Caernarfon, it is a fair way onto the valleys and mountains of Snowdonia. Croesor Primary School had the full fable drawn by the children in the 1970s in a pottery tile mural spanning the length of the small school; this was there from when it was made until the school was sold for private use. [citation needed]

    Coel Hen

    According to another legend, Maximus appointed

    Eburacum (York). Following Maximus's departure for the continent, Coel became high king of northern Britain.[32]

    Other links with Caernarfon

    Magnus Maximus and Elen are traditionally given as the parents of Saint Peblig (or Publicus, named in the Calendar of the

    Mithras, close to the Segontium Roman Fort. A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century.[33]

    The medieval English king Edward I was influenced by the legendary dream of Macsen Wledig/Magnus Maximus. In the dream Maximus had seen a fort, "the fairest that man ever saw", within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island. Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus's dream and drew on the imperial link when building Caernarfon Castle in 1283.[34] It was apparently believed that Maximus died in Wales. According to the Flores Historiarum, during the construction of the Castle and the nearby planned town, the body believed to be of Magnus Maximus was discovered entombed; King Edward ordered its reburial in a local church.[35]

    Later literature

    The prominent place of Macsen in history, Welsh legend and in the

    M J Trow's Britannia series, Nancy McKenzie's Queen of Camelot and Rudyard Kipling's Puck of Pook's Hill. The popular Welsh folk song Yma o Hyd, recorded by Dafydd Iwan in 1981, recalls Macsen Wledig and celebrates the continued survival of the Welsh people
    since his days.

    Primary sources

    He is mentioned in a number of ancient and medieval sources:

    References

    1. doi:10.7227/BJRL.66.1.2. [Chronicle of Sulpicius Severus
      ] 2.48.5: "iam tum rumor incesserat clemens maximum"... The reading "Clementem" led to the mistaken view that the emperor was called Magnus Clemens Maximus.
    2. ^ "The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500–c. 700" by Paul Fouracre, Rosamond McKitterick, p. 48
    3. ^ a b c d e J. B. Bury ed. (1924), The Cambridge Medieval History, p. 238
    4. ISBN 9780907158738
      .
    5. ^ McLynn 1994, p. 154.
    6. ^ Errington 2006, pp. 31–32.
    7. ^ Wijnendaele, J. (2020). Ammianus, Magnus Maximus and the Gothic Uprising. Britannia, 51, 330-335. doi:10.1017/S0068113X20000045
    8. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire(Penguin 1986) p. 417
    9. ^ Orosius, Historium adversum paganos 7.34.9
    10. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova 4.35.2-3
    11. ^ D Divine, The North-West Frontier of Rome (London 1969) p. 229
    12. ISBN 978-1-3981-1137-0
      .
    13. ^ A Momigliano, Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography (Oxford 1977) p. 113
    14. ^ K Cooper ed., Making Early Medieval Societies (2016) p. 34 and p. 44
    15. ISBN 9781107023369
      .
    16. S2CID 253923880
      .
    17. ^ Ambrose, Patrologia Latina, 16–17 (1845), nos. 40
    18. ^ Pan. Lat. II.34
    19. ^ For a summary of the invasion of Italy and subsequent campaign against Theodosius see Hebblewhite, M. (2020) Theodosius and the Limits of Empire, 81ff
    20. ^ Pan. Lat. II.35-6
    21. ^ Ambrose, Ep. 40.32
    22. ^ Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68)
    23. ISBN 0-521-41485-7
      . Retrieved 13 January 2020.
    24. ISBN 978-0-7524-7560-8
      . Retrieved 13 January 2020.
    25. ^
      ISBN 0-7102-1215-1
    26. ^ Giles, John Allen, ed. (1841), "The Works of Gildas", The Works of Gildas and Nennius, London: James Bohn, p. 13, The History, ch. 14.
    27. ^ Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887), "Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20", Y Cymmrodor, vol. VIII, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 83–92
    28. ^ Phillimore, Egerton (1888), "The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859", in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), Y Cymmrodor, vol. IX, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 141–183
    29. ^ a b Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, Third Edition, 2006. 441-444
    30. ^ a b c G Monmouth (1966). The History of the Kings of Britain. Penguin 1966, pp. 136–147
    31. ^ S Davies trans, Mabinogion (Oxford 2007) p. 108
    32. ^ Kessler, Peter. "Magnus Maximus". The History Files. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
    33. ^ "Church of St Peblig, Caernarfon". www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk. British Listed Buildings. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
    34. ISBN 0-7134-4089-9
      .
    35. ISBN 0-907628-71-0
      .

    Sources

    External links

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Magnus Maximus.
    Magnus Maximus
     Died: 28 August 388
    Regnal titles
    Preceded by Roman emperor
    383-388
    With: Valentinian II, Theodosius I and Victor     		Succeeded by
    Political offices
    Preceded by Roman consul
    388
    with Theodosius I and Maternus Cynegius     		Succeeded by
    Legendary titles
    Preceded by King of Britain
    383–388
    with Dionotus (regent)     		Succeeded by
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnus_Maximus&oldid=1216245788"