Marathi people

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Maharashtrians
)

Marathi people
मराठी लोक
2011)[2]
 United States127,630[3]
 Israel60,000 (Bene Israel)[4]
 Australia13,055[5]
 Canada9,755[6]
 Pakistan500[7]
 Morocco490[citation needed]
Languages
Marathi
Religion
Majority:
Hinduism
Minority:
Related ethnic groups
Other Indo-Aryan peoples

The Marathi people (Marathi: मराठी लोक, romanized: Marāṭhī lōk) or Marathis (Marathi: मराठी, romanized: Marāṭhī) are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed as a Marathi-speaking state of India in 1960, as part of a nationwide linguistic reorganisation of the Indian states. The term "Maratha" is generally used by historians to refer to all Marathi-speaking peoples, irrespective of their caste;[8] however, now it may refer to a Maharashtrian caste known as the Maratha.[9]

The Marathi community came into political prominence in the 17th century, when the Maratha Empire was established under Shivaji; the Marathas are credited to a large extent for reducing the Mughal emperor to a mere figurehead.[10][11][12]

History

Ancient to medieval period

During the ancient period, around 230 BC,

Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 8th to the 10th century.[15] The Persian merchant and traveller, Sulaiman al-Tajir, who wrote of his many voyages to India and China in the mid-9th century CE, called the ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, Amoghavarsha, "one of the four great kings of the world".[16]

From the early 11th century to the 12th century, the Deccan Plateau was dominated by the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty.[17]

The

Adilshahi, Nizamshahi, and the Mughal Empire.[19]

The early period of Islamic rule saw the imposition of a

Bhosale, Shirke, Ghorpade,Jadhav, More, Mahadik, Ghatge, and Nimbalkar loyally served different sultans at different periods of time. All watandar considered their watan a source of economic power and pride and were reluctant to part with it. The watandars were the first to oppose Shivaji because it hurt their economic interests.[22] Since most of the population was Hindu and spoke Marathi, even the sultans such as Ibrahim Adil Shah I adopted Marathi as the court language for administration and record-keeping.[22][23][24]

Islamic rule also led to Persian vocabulary entering the Marathi language. Per Kulkarni, for the elites of the era using Persian words was a status symbol. Surnames derived from service during that period such as Fadnis, Chitnis, Mirasdar, etc. are still in use today.[22]

Most of the Marathi

Narsimha Saraswati, and Mahanubhava sect founder Chakradhar Swami. All of them used the Marathi language rather than Sanskrit
for their devotional and philosophical compositions.

The decline of Islamic rule in Deccan started when Shivaji (1630–1680) founded the Maratha Empire by annexing a portion of the Bijapur Sultanate. Shivaji later led rebellions against Mughal rule, thus becoming a symbol of Hindu resistance and self-rule.[26] The Maratha Empire contributed greatly to the end of Mughal rule and went on to rule over a vast empire stretching from Attock to Cuttack.[citation needed]

Early modern period (1650–1818)

Political history

In the mid-17th century,

War of 27 Years between the much-weakened Mughal Empire and the rising Maratha Empire came to an end.[31]

Territory under Maratha control in 1760 (yellow), without its vassals

vassals of the British until 1947 when they acceded to the Dominion of India.[34]

A watercolor painting of Pune from the late Peshwa era as seen from the confluence of the Mula and Mutha rivers, by British artist Henry Salt. The picture clearly shows the permanent features of the place and cremations. River confluences have been popular in Hinduism for cremations and also for ceremonial disposal of ashes

The Maratha Empire also developed a potent coastal navy around the 1660s. At its peak under Maratha

British, Portuguese, Dutch, and Siddi naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy dominated until around the 1730s, but was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist entirely by 1818.[37]

Social history

Before British rule, the Maharashtra region was divided into many revenue divisions. The medieval equivalent of a county or district was the

CKP caste.[40] The village also used to have twelve hereditary servants called the Balutedar. The Balutedar system was supportive of the agriculture sector. Servants under this system provided services to the farmers and the economic system of the village. The base of this system was caste. The servants were responsible for tasks specific to their castes. There were twelve kinds of servants under Bara Balutedar: Joshi (village priest and astrologer from Brahmin caste),[41] Sonar (goldsmith from Daiwadnya caste), Sutar (carpenter), Gurav (priest of Shiva temple), Nhawi (barber), Parit (washerman), Teli (oil pressers), Kumbhar (potter), Chambhar (cobbler), Dhor, Koli (fisherman or water carrier), Chougula (assistant to Patil), Mang (rope maker), and Mahar (village security).[42] In this list of Balutedar: Dhor, Mang, Mahar, and Chambhar belonged to the untouchable group of castes.[43]

In exchange for their services, the balutedars were granted complex sets of hereditary rights (watan) to a share in the village harvest.[44]

British colonial rule

B. R. Ambedkar, a polymath and Social reformer
Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the Maratha Maharaja of Baroda
Jotirao Phule
, Social reformer

The British rule of more than a century in the present-day Maharashtra region saw huge changes for the Marathi people in every aspect of their lives. Areas that correspond to present-day Maharashtra were under direct or indirect British rule, first under the

Tanjore
.

The British colonial period saw standardisation of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary William Carey. Carey also published the first dictionary of Marathi in Devanagari script. The most comprehensive Marathi-English dictionary was compiled by Captain James Thomas Molesworth and Major Thomas Candy in 1831. The book is still in print nearly two centuries after its publication.[46] Molesworth also worked on standardising Marathi. He used Brahmins of Pune for this task and adopted the Sanskrit-dominated dialect spoken by this caste in the city as the standard dialect for Marathi.[47][48] The introduction of printing, standardisation of Marathi, and establishment of modern schools and colleges during the early colonial era led to the spread of literacy and knowledge to many different sections of society such as women, the dalits and the cultivator classes.[49]

The Marathi community played an important part in the social and religious reform movements, as well as the Indian nationalist movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Notable

dalits
castes.

The non-Brahmin Hindu castes started organising at the beginning of the 20th century with the blessing of Shahu, the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur. The campaign took off in the early 1920s under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe and Baburao Javalkar. Both belonged to the non-Brahmin party. Capturing the Ganpati and Shivaji festivals from Brahmin domination were their early goals.[54] They combined nationalism with anti-casteism as the party's aims.[55] Later on in the 1930s, Jedhe merged the non-Brahmin party with the Congress party and changed that party from an upper-caste-dominated body to a more broadly based but also Maratha-dominated party.[56] The early 20th century also saw the rise of B. R. Ambedkar, who led the campaign for the rights of the dalits caste that included his own Mahar caste.

The Hindu nationalist organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (

Hindu nationalist philosophy of Hindutva.[59][60][61] He was a leading figure in the Hindu Mahasabha.[61] Savarkar's Hindutva philosophy remains the guiding principle for organisations that are part of the RSS-affiliated organisations.[62]

Although the British originally regarded India as a place for the supply of raw materials for the factories of England, by the end of the 19th century a modern manufacturing industry was developing in the city of Mumbai.

mills was of Marathi origin[64] from Western Maharashtra, but more specifically from the coastal Konkan region.[65]
The census recorded for the city in the first half of the 20th century showed nearly half the city's population listed Marathi as their mother tongue.[66][67]

During the period of 1835–1907, a large number of Indians, including Marathi people, were taken to the island of Mauritius as indentured labourers to work on sugarcane plantations. The Marathi people on the island form the oldest diaspora of Marathi people outside India.[68]

Since Indian independence in 1947

After India gained independence from Britain in 1947, all princely states lying within the borders of the Bombay Presidency acceded to the Indian Union and were integrated into the newly created Bombay State in 1950.[69]

The small community of Marathi Jews (Bene Israel – Sons of Israel) started emigrating to the newly created country of Israel in the late 1940s and early 1950s.[70][71] The number of Bene Israel remaining in India was estimated to be around 4,000–5,000 in 1988.[72]

In 1956, the

Aurangabad Division) from the erstwhile Hyderabad state and the Vidarbha region from the Central Provinces and Berar. The enlarged state also included Gujarati-speaking areas. The southernmost part of Bombay State was ceded to Mysore. From 1954 to 1955, Marathi people strongly protested against the bilingual Bombay State, and the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was formed to agitate for a Marathi-speaking state.[73][74]

At the same time, the

Gopalrao Khedkar, to fight for a separate state of Maharashtra with Mumbai as its state capital. Mass protests, 105 deaths, and heavy losses in the Marathi-speaking areas by the ruling Congress Party in the 1957 election, led the government under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to change its policy and agree to the protesters' demands. On 1 May 1960, the separate Marathi-speaking state was formed by dividing the earlier Bombay State into the new states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. The city of Mumbai was declared the capital of the new state.[75] The state continues to have a dispute with Karnataka regarding the districts of Belgaum and Karwar, both with a large population of Marathi people.[76][77][78]

For the first time, the creation of Maharashtra brought most Marathi people under one state with the mainly rural Kunbi-Maratha community as the largest social group. This group has dominated the rural economy and politics of the state since 1960.[79][80] The community accounts for 31% of the population of Maharashtra. They dominate the cooperative institutions and with the resultant economic power control politics from the village level up to the Assembly and Lok Sabha seats.[81] Since the 1980s,[82] this group has also been active in setting up private educational institutions.[83][84][85] Major past political figures of Maharashtra have been from this group. The rise of the Hindu nationalist Shiv Sena and the Bharatiya Janata Party in recent years have not dented Maratha caste representation in the Maharashtra Legislative assembly.[81]

After the Maratha-Kunbi cluster, the scheduled caste (SC) Mahars are numerically the second-largest community among the Marathi people in Maharashtra. Most of them embraced

Dalit Literature.[86]

The Portuguese-occupied enclave of

referendum held on this issue rejected the merger. Later, Konkani
was made the official language of Goa, but Marathi is also allowed in any government correspondence.

The 1960s also saw the establishment by Bal Thackeray of Shiv Sena, a populist sectarian party advocating the rights of Marathi people in the heterogeneous city of Mumbai. Early campaigns by Shiv Sena advocated for more opportunities for Marathi people in government jobs. The party also led a campaign against the city's South Indian population. By the 1980s the party had captured power in the Mumbai Corporation, and in the 1990s it led the government of Maharashtra's coalition with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). During this transition from founding to capturing power, the party toned down its rhetoric against non-Marathi people and adopted a more Hindu nationalist stance.

Castes and communities

The Marathi people form an ethnolinguistic group that is distinct from others in terms of its language, history, cultural and religious practices, social structure, literature, and art.[87]

The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the Brahmin castes-the

Rajputs who migrated centuries ago to Maharashtra from northern India – and settled in north Maharashtra. The population of the Mangs was 8%.[92]

Hindu castes in Maharashtra

Majority of Marathi Hindu belong either to the cultivator caste cluster of

Kumbhar (potters), Sonar (Goldsmith), Teli (oil pressers), Chambhar (cobbler), Mang (rope makers), Koli (fishermen or water carriers) and Nabhik (barbers).[93] The Mahar
were one of the balutedar who adopted Buddhism in 1950s. Some of the other Marathi castes are:

  • Agri – A community from coastal region of Mumbai, Thane and Raigad districts. The community has become quite prosperous in recent decades by taking advantage of opportunities offered by rapid industrialisation of this region.[94]
  • Banjara – Formerly a nomadic group
  • Bhandari – Traditional extractors of Tadi
    from palm trees
  • Bhoi – Traditionally a people carrier community employed by the rulers
  • Brahmin
    – These are divided into many sub-castes
  • Dhangar – Traditionally a nomadic shepherd caste
  • Leva Patil
  • Lonari
  • Pathare Prabhu
  • Ramoshi – Soldiers and watchman under Peshwa
  • Somvanshi Kshatriya Pathare
  • Twashta Kasar – Artisan caste who traditionally worked with brass.[95]
  • Vaishya Vani – A trader caste

Non-Hindu communities

Marathi diaspora

In other Indian states

As the Maratha Empire expanded across India, the Marathi population started migrating out of Maharashtra alongside their rulers. Peshwa,

Tanjore.[97] Many families belonging to these groups still follow Marathi traditions even though they have lived more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from Maharashtra for more than 200 years.[98]

Other people have migrated in modern times in search of jobs outside Maharashtra. These people have also settled in almost all parts of the country. They have set up community organisations called Maharashtra Mandals in many cities across the country. A national level central organisation, the Brihan Maharashtra Mandal was formed in 1958[99] to promote Marathi culture outside Maharashtra. Several sister organisations of the Brihan Maharashtra Mandal have also been formed outside India.[100]

Population in India by state

Source:[101]

State Marathi speakers(2011) Percentage-2011
India 83,026,680 6.86% ( Third most spoken in India )
Maharashtra 77,461,172 69.93%
Karnataka 2,064,906 5.38%
Tamil Nadu 85,454 0.12%
Andhra Pradesh/Telangana 674,928 2.80%
Chhattisgarh 144,035 0.56%
Orissa
8,617 0.02%
West Bengal 14,815 0.02%
Gujarat 920,345 3.52%
Puducherry 890 0.07%
Kerala 31,642 0.09%
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 639 0.17%
Jharkhand 8,481 0.03%
Delhi 27,239 0.16%
Assam 11,641 0.04%
Madhya Pradesh 1,231,285 2.70%
Goa 158,787 12.89%
Rajasthan 23,240 0.03%
Punjab 20,392 0.07%
Jammu and Kashmir 23,006 0.18%
Haryana 12,806 0.05%
Tripura 1,412 0.04%
Uttarakhand 6,028 0.06%
Arunachal Pradesh 2,297 0.17%
Nagaland 2,659 0.13%
Chandigarh 1,252 0.12%
Himachal Pradesh 3,438 0.05%
Manipur 1,583 0.06%
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 24,105 7.01%
Meghalaya 20,751 0.70%
Sikkim 1,138 0.19%
Daman and Diu 11,008 4.53%
Mizoram 408 0.04%
Lakshadweep 26 0.04%
Bihar 1,975 0.001%
Uttar Pradesh 24,280 0.01%

International diaspora

A replica Killa (fort) presented by a family at a Maharashtra Mandal Diwali program in United States

In the mid-1800s, a large number of

Southern India, however, a significant number of immigrants to Mauritius were Marathis.[102][103]

Since the state of Israel was established in 1948, around 25,000–30,000 Indian Jews have emigrated there, of which around 20,000 were from the Marathi speaking Bene Israel community of Konkan.[104]

Indians, including Marathi People, have migrated to Europe and particularly Great Britain for more than a century.

South Asian population residing there, including Marathi people, migrated to the United Kingdom,[108][109][110]
or India.

Large-scale immigration of Indians into the United States started when the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 came into effect. Most of the Marathi immigrants who came after 1965 were professionals such as doctors, engineers or scientists. The second wave of immigration took place during the I.T. boom of the 1990s and later.

Since the 1990s due to the I.T. boom and because of the general ease of travel, Marathi people are now found in greater numbers in all corners of the world including the United States, Australia,[111] Canada,[112] the Gulf countries, European countries, Iran, and Pakistan.

After the third battle of Panipat, Marathi people settled in Sindh and Balochisthan region (modern day Pakistan). After partition of India, many Marathi Hindus came to India. But, 500–1000 Marathi Hindus also lives in Karachi city of Sindh province.[citation needed]

Culture

Religion

The majority of Marathi people are

Jains, Christians and Jews.[113]

Marathi Hindu customs

Deepmala Deep Stamb in Omkareshwar Temple in Pune

The main life ceremonies in Hindu culture include those related to birth, weddings, initiation ceremonies, as well as death rituals. Other ceremonies for different occasions in Hindu life include Vastushanti and "Satyanarayan" which is performed before a family formally establishes residence in a new house. Satyanarayana Puja is a ceremony performed before commencing any new endeavour or for no particular reason. Invoking the name of the family's gotra and the kuladevata are important aspects of these ceremonies for many communities.

A Marathi household shrine with Khandoba at the forefront

Like most other Hindu communities, the Marathi people have a household shrine called a devaghar with idols, symbols, and pictures of various deities for daily worship. Ritual reading of religious texts known as pothi is also popular in some communities.

In some traditional families, food is first offered to the preferred deity in the household shrine, as

naivedya
, before being consumed by family members and guests. Meals or snacks are not taken before this religious offering. In present times, the naivedya is offered by families only on days of special religious significance.

Many Marathi people trace their paternal ancestors to one of the seven or eight sages, the saptarshi. They classify themselves as gotras, named after the ancestor rishi. Intra-marriage within gotras (Sagotra Vivaha) was uncommon until recently, being discouraged as it was likened to incest.

Most Marathi families have their own family patron or protective deity or the kuladevata. This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor.

Ganeshotsav and annual wari pilgrimage to the Vitthal temple at Pandharpur
are of significant importance to all Marathis alike.

Ceremonies and rituals

Antarpat and mangalashtaka ceremony, part of the Marathi Hindu wedding ceremony when gathered guests collectively bless the bride and the groom
Smashan-bhoomi (cremation place), Chinawal village of Maharashtra
Naivedya (Food offering) for the ancestors during a Pitru paksha ceremony

At birth, a child is initiated into the family ritually. The child's naming ceremony may happen many weeks or even months later, and it is called the bārsa. In many Indian Hindu communities, the naming is most often done by consulting the child's horoscope, which suggests various names depending on the child's lunar sign (called rashi). However, in Marathi Hindu families, the name that the child inevitably uses in secular functions is the one decided by their parents. If a name is chosen on the basis of the horoscope, then that is kept a secret to ward off the casting of a spell on the child during their life. During the naming ceremony, the child's

paternal aunt has the honour of naming the infant. When the child is 11 months old, they get their first hair-cut.[citation needed] This is also an important ritual and is called Jawal (जावळ). In the Maratha community, the maternal uncle is given the honour of the first snip during the ceremony.[116]

In Brahman, CKP and Gaud Saraswat Brahman communities when a male child[

Marathi Hindu people are historically

mangalasutra is the symbol of marriage for the woman. Studies show that most Indians' traditional views on caste, religion, and family background have remained unchanged when it came to marriage,[118] that is, people marry within their own castes,[119] and matrimonial advertisements in newspapers are still classified by caste and sub-caste.[120]

While arranging a marriage, gana, gotra, pravara, devaka are all kept in mind. Horoscopes are matched.[121] The marriage ceremony is described as follows: 'The groom, along with the bride's party goes to the bride's house. A ritual named Akshata is performed in which people around the groom and bride throw haldi (turmeric) and kunku (vermilion) coloured rice grains on the couple. After the kanyadana ceremony, there is an exchange of garlands between the bride and the groom. Then, the groom ties the Mangalsutra around the neck of the bride. This is followed by granthibandhan in which the end of the bride's sādi/sāri is tied to the end of the groom's dhoti, and a feast is arranged at the groom's place.'[121]

Elements of a traditional Marathi Hindu wedding ceremony include seemant poojan on the wedding eve. The dharmic wedding includes the antarpat ceremony followed by the Vedic ceremony which involves the bridegroom and the bride walking around the sacred fire seven times to complete the marriage. Modern urban wedding ceremonies conclude with an evening reception. A Marathi Hindu woman becomes part of her husband's family after marriage and adopts the gotra as well as the traditions of her husband's family.[note 1]

After weddings and after thread ceremonies, many Maratha, Deshastha Brahmin and Dhangar families arrange a traditional religious singing performance by a Gondhali group.[125]

Decades ago, girls married the groom of their parents' choice by their early teens or before. Even today, girls are married off in their late teens by rural and orthodox educated people. Urban women may choose to remain unmarried until the late 20s or even early 30s.

Marathi Hindu people dispose their dead by cremation.[126] The deceased's son carries the corpse to the cremation ground atop a bier. The eldest son lights the fire for the corpse at the head for males and at the feet for females. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after death. This is a 13-day ritual with the pinda being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a Śrāddha (Shrāddha) ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to Vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. Like all other Hindus, the preference is for the ashes to be immersed in a river. Holy rivers such as the Ganges river or Godavari have increasingly become popular for this ritual as travelling has become easier in modern times. Śrāddha becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered. These rituals are expected to be performed only by male descendants, preferably the eldest son of the deceased. The annual Śrāddha for all the ancestors is usually performed during the Pitru Paksha, the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Bhadrapada.[127]

Hindu calendar and festivals

A Gudhi is erected on Gudhi Padwa.

The Marathi,

Kannada and Telugu people follow the Deccan Shalivahana Hindu calendar, which may have subtle differences with calendars followed by other communities in India. The calendar follows the Amanta tradition where the lunar month ends on no moon day.[128]
Marathi Hindus celebrate most of the Indian Hindu festivals such as

Dnyaneshwar palakhi on its way to Pandharpur
  • Kartik) according to the Hindu calendar
    . This is one of the most important fasting days for Marathi Hindu people.
  • Guru Pournima: The full moon day of the month of Ashadh is celebrated as Guru Pournima. For Hindus Guru-Shishya (teacher-student) tradition is very important, be it educational or spiritual. Gurus are often equated with God and always regarded as a link between the individual and the immortal. On this day spiritual aspirants and devotees worship Maharshi Vyasa, who is regarded as Guru of Gurus.
  • Divyanchi Amavasya: The new moon day/last day of the month of Ashadh/आषाढ (falls between June and July of Gregorian Calendar) is celebrated as Divyanchi Amavasya. This new moon signifies the end of the month of Ashadh, and the arrival of the month of
    Shravan
    , which is considered the most pious month of the Hindu calendar. On this day, all the traditional lamps of the house are cleaned and fresh wicks are put in. The lamps are then lit and worshiped. People cook a specific item called diva (literally lamp), prepared by steaming sweet wheat dough batter and shaping it like little lamps. They are eaten warm with ghee.
  • Battis Shirala in Maharashtra a big snake festival is held which attracts thousands of tourists from all over the world. In other parts of Maharashtra, snake charmers are seen sitting by the roadsides or moving from one place to another with their baskets holding snakes. While playing the lingering melodious notes on their pungi, they beckon devotees with their calls—Nagoba-la dudh de Mayi ('Give milk to the cobra oh mother!'). Women offer sweetened milk, popcorn (lahya in Marathi) made out of jwari/dhan/corns to the snakes and pray. Cash and old clothes are also given to the snake-charmers. In Barshi
    Town in the Solapur district, a big jatra (carnival) is held at Nagoba Mandir in Tilak chowk.
  • sacred thread
    (Janve; Marathi: जानवे) at a common gathering ceremony called Shraavani (Marathi:श्रावणी).
Gokulashtami dahi-handi celebration
  • dahi handi
    . This is a reenactment of Krishna's efforts to steal butter from a matka (earthen pot) suspended from the ceiling. Large earthen pots filled with milk, curds, butter, honey, fruits, etc. are suspended at a height of between 20 and 40 feet (6.1 and 12.2 m) in the streets. Teams of young men and boys come forward to claim this prize. They construct a human pyramid by standing on each other's shoulders until the pyramid is tall enough to enable the topmost person to reach the pot and claim the contents after breaking it. Currency notes are often tied to the rope by which the pot is suspended. The prize money is distributed among those who participate in the pyramid building. The dahi-handi draws a huge crowd and they support the teams trying to grab these pots by chanting 'Govinda ala re ala'.
Woman playing Zimma on the night of a Mangala Gauri celebration in the Month of Shravan
  • Mangala Gaur: Pahili Mangala Gaur (first Mangala Gaur) is one of the most important celebrations for the new brides amongst Marathi Brahmins. On the Tuesday of the month of the Shravan falling within a year after her marriage, the new bride performs Shivling puja for the well-being of her husband and new family. It is also a get-together of all womenfolk. It includes chatting, playing games, ukhane (married women take their husband's name woven in 2/4 rhyming liners) and sumptuous food. They typically play zimma, fugadi, bhendya (more popularly known as Antakshari in modern India) until the early hours of the following morning.
Oxen decorated for Pola in a village.
Anant Chaturdashi
Women performing Bhondla dance during the festival of Navratri

During this Navavatri, girls and women perform 'Bhondla/Hadga' as the Sun moves to the thirteenth constellation of the zodiac called 'Hasta' (Elephant). During the nine days, Bhondla (also known as 'Bhulabai' in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra) is celebrated in the garden or on the terrace during evening hours by inviting female friends of the daughter in the house. An elephant is drawn either with

Yadna or reading of a Hindu Holy book (Marathi:पारायण ).[98]

The celebration lasts for three days and ends on Kartiki

Pournima
or Tripurari Pournima.

Devotees showering turmeric powder (bhandara) on each other at Khandoba Temple in Jejuri during Champa Shashthi.
Traditional Sesame seed based sweets for Makar Sankrant
Shimga being celebrated on the port of Harne on the Konkan coast
  • Holi, Shimga and Rangapanchami: The festival of Holi falls in Falgun, the last month of the Marathi Shaka calendar. Marathi people celebrate this festival by lighting a bonfire and offering puran poli to the fire. In North India, Holi is celebrated over two days with the second day celebrated with throwing colours. In Maharashtra it is known as Dhuli Vandan. However, Maharashtrians celebrate colour throwing five days after Holi on Rangapanchami. In Maharashtra, people make puran poli as the ritual offering to the holy fire.[149]

In coastal Konkan area, the festival of Shimga is celebrated which not only incorporates Holi but also involves other rituals and celebrations which precede Holi and extends for a few days more.

Bullock cart race at a Jatra in Manchar, Maharashtra
  • Village Urus or
    kabbadi, wrestling tournaments, a fair and entertainment such as a lavani/tamasha show by travelling dance troupes.[151][152][153] A number of families eat meat preparations only during this period. In some villages, women are given a break from cooking and other household chores by their menfolk.[154]

Festivals and celebrations observed by other communities

Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din

On 14 October 1956 at

Dharmacakra Pravartan Din. The grounds in Nagpur on which the conversion ceremony took place is known as Deekshabhoomi. Every year more than a million Buddhist people, especially Ambedkarite, from all over the world visit Deekshabhoomi to commemorate Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din.[156]

Buddha Purnima

Festival commemorates Lord Buddha's enlightenment and birth. Buddhist community celebrates this day with great fervor and zeal across the world. , Maharashtra has India's largest Buddhist population, about 5.8% of the State's total population. The State not only has rich Buddhist heritage and culture, it is also dotted with large and small Buddhist caves. Buddhists go to common Viharas to observe a rather longer-than-usual, full-length Buddhist sutra, akin to a service. The dress code is pure white. Non-vegetarian food is normally avoided. Kheer, sweet rice porridge is commonly served to recall the story of Sujata, who offered the Buddha a bowl of milk porridge.

Christmas

Jesus Christ. Like in other parts of India, Christmas is celebrated with zeal by the indigenous Marathi Catholics such as the Bombay East Indians & Korlai Portuguese Creole Luso-Indians.[157]

Food

A simple Maharashtrian meal with bhaaji, bhakari, raw onion and pickle
ladu
.

The many communities in Marathi society result in a diverse cuisine. This diversity extends to the family level because each family uses its own unique combination of spices. The majority of Maharashtrians do eat meat and eggs, but the Brahmin community is mostly

jowar), bajra or bajri.[158] However, the North Maharashtrians and urbanites prefer roti, which is a plain bread made with wheat flour.[159] In the coastal Konkan region, rice is the traditional staple food. An aromatic variety of ambemohar rice is more popular amongst Marathi people than the internationally known basmati rice. Malvani dishes use more wet coconut and coconut milk in their preparation. In the Vidarbha region, little coconut is used in daily preparations but dry coconut, along with peanuts, is used in dishes such as spicy savji
s or mutton and chicken dishes.

Thalipeeth is a popular traditional breakfast flat bread that is prepared using bhajani, a mixture of many different varieties of roasted lentils.[160]

Marathi Hindu people observe fasting days when traditional staple food like rice and chapatis are avoided. However, milk products and non-native foods such as potatoes, peanuts and

sabudana
preparations (sabudana khicdi) are allowed, which result in a carbohydrate-rich alternative fasting cuisine.

Some Maharashtrian dishes including sev bhaji, misal pav and patodi are distinctly regional dishes within Maharashtra.

In metropolitan areas including Mumbai and Pune, the pace of life makes fast food very popular. The most popular forms of fast food amongst Marathi people in these areas are:

sheera and panipuri. Most Marathi fast food and snacks are purely lacto-vegetarian in nature.[161][162]

In South Konkan, near

Kombdi Vade, is a recipe from the Konkan region. Deep fried flatbread made from spicy rice and urid
flour served with chicken curry, more specifically with Malvani chicken curry.

Desserts are an important part of Marathi food and include

Attire

Chimnabai II
, wearing a 'Nauvari', a traditional Maharashtrian sari

Traditionally, Marathi women commonly wore the

pheta on cultural occasions. The Gandhi cap along with a long white shirt and loose pajama style trousers is the popular attire among older men in rural Maharashtra.[164][167][168] Women wear traditional jewellery derived from Marathas and Peshwas dynasties. Kolhapuri saaj, a special type of necklace, is also worn by Marathi women.[164] In urban areas, many women and men wear western attire.[168]

Names

Marathi Hindu people follow a partially Patronymic naming system. For example, it is customary to associate the father's name with the given name. In the case of married women, the husband's name is associated with the given name. Therefore, the constituents of a Marathi name as given name /first name, father/husband, family name /surname. For example:

Personal names

Marathi Hindus choose given names for their children from a variety of sources. They could be characters from

lotus), senses such as Madhura for sweetness, precious metals such female name Suwarna for gold, heavenly bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, Vasant and Sharad for spring and autumn respectively, names of film stars (e.g. Amit after Amitabh Bachchan) or sportsmen, and after virtues (e.g.,Vinay for modesty). Nicknames such as Bandu, Balu, Sonya and Pillu for males and Chhabu and Bebi for girls have been popular too.[170][171]

Surnames

A large number of Maharashtrian surnames are derived by adding the suffix kar to the village from which the family originally hailed.

Kumbhar, Sutar, Kulkarni, Deshpande, Deshmukh, Patil, Desai, and Joshi denote the family's ancestral trade, profession, or administrative role.[174][175][176][177][178][179][180]

Families of the historical Maratha chiefs use their clan name as their surname. Some of these are Jadhav, Bhosale, Chavan,

More, Nimbalkar, Pawar, Masaram, Gharge-Desai (Deshmukh) and Ghatge.[181] Members of the numerically largest Maratha Kunbi cultivator class among Marathi people have also adopted some of the Maratha clan names,either to indicate allegiance to the Maratha chief they served, or as an attempt at upward mobility.[182]

Honourifics and suffixes

Marathi people use various suffixes and prefixes with names. Most of these are intended as honourific when addressing older people, or people with authority. The common suffixes include bai, and sometimes tai for women, rao, and saheb for men.[183] According to Sankhelia, the first use of the word, bai was in the 13th century.[184] In modern times, the prefixes Shree for men, and Saubhagyavati (abbreviated as Sau) for married women have become common.

Language and literature

It has been noted by scholars that there is

Dravidian influence in the development of the Marathi language.[185]

Ancient Marathi inscriptions

Marathi, also known as Seuna at that time, was the court language during the reign of the

Hemadri are also found. Hemadri was also responsible for introducing a style of architecture called Hemadpanth.[5] Among the various stone inscriptions are those found at Akshi in the Kolaba district, which are the first known stone inscriptions in Marathi. An example found at the bottom of the statue of Gomateshwar (Bahubali) at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka bears the inscription 'Chamundraye karaviyale, Gangaraye suttale karaviyale' which gives some information regarding the sculptor of the statue and the king who ordered its creation.[6]

Classical literature

Marathi people have a long literary tradition which started in the ancient era.[

Sikh tradition, since several of his compositions were included in the Sikh Holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib. Eknath,[186] Sant Tukaram,[187] Mukteshwar and Samarth Ramdas were equally important figures in the 17th century. In the 18th century, writers like Vaman Pandit, Raghunath Pandit, Shridhar Pandit, Mahipati,[188] and Moropant produced some well-known works.[citation needed] All of the above-mentioned writers produced religious literature.[citation needed
]

Modern Marathi literature

The first English book was translated into Marathi in 1817 while the first Marathi newspaper started in 1841.

in Marathi was a strong voice in promoting Ganeshotsav or Chhatrapati Shivaji festival. The newspaper also offered criticism of colonial government excesses. At this time, Marathi efficiently aided by Marathi Drama. B. R. Ambedkar's newspaper, Bahishkrut Bharat, set up in 1927, provided a platform for sharing literary views.

In the mid-1950s, the 'little magazine movement' gained momentum. It published writings which were non-conformist, radical, and experimental. The

N. D. Mahanor is well known for his work, while Dr. Sharad Rane is a well-known children's writer.[191]

Martial tradition

Maratha Helmet
Maratha Empire Armory
Maratha Armor
Signature Maratha Empire helmet with curved back.
Maratha Armour from Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, Russia.

Although ethnic Marathis have taken up military roles for many centuries,

Bhonsles (Maratha caste), the Holkars (Dhangar caste),[196] the Peshwas (1713 onwards; Chitpavan caste),[197] the Angres, chief of Maratha Navy (Maratha caste; 1698 onwards).[198] The Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for reducing the Mughal emperor to a mere figurehead. .[199][200] Further, they were also considered by the British as the most important native power of 18th-century India.[201][202] Today this ethnicity is represented in the Indian Army, with two regiments deriving their names from Marathi communities —the Maratha Light Infantry[203] and the Mahar Regiment.[204]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Until about 300 BC, Hindu men were about 24 years of age when they got married and the girl was always post-pubescent.[122] The social evil of child marriage established itself in Hindu society sometime after 300 BC as a response to foreign invasions.[123] The problem was first addressed in 1860 by amending the Indian Penal Code which required the boy's age to be 14 and the girl's age to be 12 at minimum, for a marriage to be considered legal. In 1927, the Hindu Child Marriage Act made a marriage between a boy under 15 and a girl under 12 illegal. This minimum age requirement was increased to 14 for girls and 18 for boys in 1929. It was again increased by a year for girls in 1948. The Act was amended again in 1978 when the ages were raised to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.[124]

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Works cited

Further reading

  • John Roberts (June 1971) "The Movement of Elites in Western India under Early British Rule", The Historical Journal 24(2) pp. 241–262
  • Hiroshi Fukazawa (February 1972) Rural servants in the 18th century Maharashtrian village-demiurgic of Jajmani system? Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 12(2), pp. 14–40

External links