Mahdi
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The Mahdi (
The Mahdi is mentioned in several
The Mahdi features in both
Etymology
The term Mahdi is derived from the Arabic root h-d-y (ه-د-ي), commonly used to mean "divine guidance".
Historical development
Pre-Islamic ideas
Some historians suggest that the term itself was probably introduced into Islam by southern Arabian tribes who had settled in
Origin
The term al-Mahdi was employed from the beginning of Islam, but only as an honorific epithet ("the guide") and without any messianic significance. As an honorific, it was used in some instances to describe Muhammad (by
There will arise a difference after the death of a caliph, and a man of the people of Medina will go forth fleeing to Mecca. Then some of the people of Mecca will come to him and will make him rise in revolt against his will ... An expedition will be sent against him from Syria but will be swallowed up ... in the desert between Mecca and Medina. When the people see this, the righteous men ... of Syria and ... Iraq will come to him and pledge allegiance to him. Thereafter a man of the Quraysh will arise whose maternal uncles are of Kalb. He will send an expedition against them, but they will defeat them ... He will then divide the wealth and act among them according to the Sunna of their Prophet. Islam will settle down firmly on the ground ... He will stay seven years and then die, and the Muslims will pray over him.[12]
Refusing to recognize the new caliph, Yazid I (r. 680–683), after Mu'awiya's death in 680, Ibn al-Zubayr had fled to the Meccan sanctuary. From there he launched anti-Umayyad propaganda, calling for a shura of the Quraysh to elect a new caliph. Those opposed to the Umayyads were paying him homage and asking for the public proclamation of his caliphate, forcing Yazid to send an army to dislodge him in 683. After defeating rebels in the nearby Medina, the army besieged Mecca but was forced to withdraw as a result of Yazid's sudden death shortly afterward. Ibn al-Zubayr was recognized caliph in Arabia, Iraq, and parts of Syria, where Yazid's son and successor Mu'awiya II (r. 683–684) held power in Damascus and adjoining areas. The hadith hoped to enlist support against an expected Umayyad campaign from Syria. The Umayyads did indeed send another army to Mecca in 692, but contrary to the hadith's prediction was successful in removing Ibn al-Zubayr. The hadith lost relevance soon afterward, but resurfaced in the Basran hadith circles a generation later, this time removed from its original context and understood as referring to a future restorer.[9][4]
Around the time when Ibn al-Zubayr was trying to expand his dominion, the pro-Alid revolutionary
Early discussions about the identity of the Mahdi by religious scholars can be traced back to the time after the Second Fitna. These discussions developed in different directions and were influenced by traditions (hadith) attributed to Muhammad. In Umayyad times, scholars and traditionists not only differed on which caliph or rebel leader should be designated as Mahdi but also on whether the Mahdi is a messianic figure and if signs and predictions of his time had been satisfied. In Medina, among the conservative religious circles, the belief in Umar II being the Mahdi was widespread. Said ibn al-Musayyib (d. 715) is said to identify Umar II as the Mahdi long before his reign. The Basran, Abu Qilabah, supported the view that Umar II was the Mahdi. Hasan al-Basri (d. 728) opposed the concept of a Muslim Messiah but believed that if there was the Mahdi, it was Umar II.[14]
By the time of the
Shi'a Islam
In Shi'a Islam, the eschatological Mahdi was commonly given the epithet al-Qa'im (القائم),[17][18] which can be translated as 'he who will rise,'[19] signifying his rise against tyranny in the end of time.[20] Distinctively Shi'a is the notion of temporary absence or occultation of the Mahdi,[17] whose life has been prolonged by divine will.[21][22] An intimately related Shi'a notion is that of raj'a (lit. 'return'),[19][23] which often means the return to life of (some) Shi'a Imams, particularly Husayn ibn Ali, to exact their revenge on their oppressors.[19][24]
Traditions that predicted the occultation and rise of a future imam were already in circulation for a century before the death of the eleventh Imam in 260 (874 CE),[25][19] and possibly as early as the seventh-century CE.[19] These traditions were appropriated by various Shi'a sects in different periods,[26] including the now-extinct sects of Nawusites and Waqifites. [27] For instance, these traditions were cited by the now-extinct Kaysanites, who denied the death of Ibn al-Hanafiyya,[17][28] and held that he was in hiding in the Razwa mountains near Medina.[4] This likely originated with two groups of his supporters, namely, southern Arabian settlers and local recent converts in Iraq, who seem to have spread the notions now known as occultation and raj'a.[4] Later on, these traditions were also employed by the Waqifites to argue that Musa al-Kazim, the seventh Imam, had not died but was in occultation.[25]
In parallel, traditions predicting the occultation of a future imam also persisted in the writings of the mainstream Shi'a, who later formed the Twelvers.
The Twelver authors also aim to establish that the description of Mahdi in Sunni sources applies to the twelfth Imam. Their efforts gained momentum in the seventh (thirteenth) century when some notable Sunni scholars endorsed the Shi'a view of the Mahdi,
Before the rise of the
In Islamic doctrine
Sunni Islam
In
The common opinion among the Sunnis is that the Mahdi is an expected ruler to be sent by God before the end times to re-establish righteousness. Even if only one day remains [until the doomsday], God will lengthen this day until He calls forth a man from me, or from the family of my house, his name matching mine and his father's name matching that of my father. He will fill the Earth with equity and justice just as it had previously been filled with injustice and oppression.[44]
Before the arrival of the Mahdi, the earth would be filled with anarchy and chaos. Divisions and civil wars, moral degradation, and worldliness would be prevalent among the Muslims. Injustice and oppression would be rampant in the world.[45] In the aftermath of the death of a king, the people would quarrel among themselves, and the as yet unrecognized Mahdi would flee from Medina to Mecca to take refuge in the Ka'ba. He would be the Mahdi recognized as ruler by the people.[12] The Dajjal would appear and will spread corruption in the world.[4][46] With an army bearing black banners, which would come to his aid from the east, the Mahdi would fight the Dajjal, and will be able to defeat him. Dressed in saffron robes with his head anointed, Jesus would descend at the point of a white minaret of the Umayyad Mosque in eastern Damascus (believed to be the Minaret of Isa) and join the Mahdi. Jesus would pray behind the Mahdi and then kill the Dajjal.[47][46] The Gog and Magog would also appear wreaking havoc before their final defeat by the forces of Jesus. Although not as significant as the Dajjal and the Gog and Magog, the Sufyani, another representative of the forces of dark, also features in the Sunni traditions. He will rise in Syria before the appearance of Mahdi. When the latter appears, the Sufyani, along with his army, will either be swallowed up en route to Mecca by the earth with God's command or defeated by the Mahdi. Jesus and the Mahdi will then conquer the world and establish caliphate. The Mahdi will die after 7 to 13 years,[48] whereas Jesus after 40 years.[49] Their deaths would be followed by reappearance of corruption before the final end of the world.[48]
Shia Islam
Twelver
In Twelver Shi'ism, the largest Shi'i branch, the belief in the messianic imam is not merely a part of creed, but the pivot.[50] For the Twelver Shi'a, the Mahdi was born but disappeared, and would remain hidden from humanity until he reappears to bring justice to the world in the end of time, a doctrine known as the Occultation. This imam in occultation is the twelfth imam, Muhammad, son of the eleventh imam, Hasan al-Askari.[51] According to the Twelvers, the Mahdi was born in Samarra around 868,[52] though his birth was kept hidden from the public.[32] He lived under his father's care until 874 when the latter was killed by the Abbasids.[53]
Minor Occultation
When his father died in 874, possibly poisoned by the Abbasids,[53] the Mahdi went into occultation by the divine command and was hidden from public view for his life was in danger from the Abbasids.[54] Only a few of the elite among the Shi'a, known as the deputies (سفراء, sufara; sing. سفير safir) of the twelfth imam, were able to communicate with him; hence the occultation in this period is referred to as the Minor Occultation (ghayba al-sughra).[55]
The first of the deputies is held to have been
Major Occultation
With the death of the fourth agent, thus began the
Reappearance
Before his
By some accounts, he will reappear on the day of Ashura (the tenth of Muharram), the day the third Imam Husayn ibn Ali was slain. He will be "a young man of medium stature with a handsome face," with black hair and beard.[66] A divine cry will call the people of the world to his aid,[19] after which the angels, jinns, and humans will flock to the Mahdi.[67] This is often followed shortly by another supernatural cry from the earth that invites men to join the enemies of the Mahdi,[19][68] and would appeal to disbelievers and hypocrites.[68]
The Mahdi will then go to
The Mahdi is also viewed as the restorer of true Islam,
Isma'ilism
In
In 899, the leader of the movement, Sa'id ibn al-Husayn, declared himself the Mahdi.[80] This brought about schism in the unified Isma'ili community as not all adherents of the movement accepted his Mahdist claims. Those in Iraq and Arabia, known as Qarmatians after their leader Hamdan Qarmat, still held that Muhammad ibn Isma'il was the awaited Mahdi and denounced the Salamiyya-based Mahdism.[81][82] In the Qarmati doctrine, the Mahdi was to abrogate the Islamic law (the Sharia) and bring forth a new message.[70] In 931, the then Qarmati leader Abu Tahir al-Jannabi declared a Persian prisoner named Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani as the awaited Mahdi. The Mahdi went on to denounce Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad as liars, abolished Islam, and instituted the cult of fire. Abu Tahir had to depose him as imposter and had him executed.[81][82]
Meanwhile, in Syria, Sa'id ibn al-Husayn's partisans took control of the central Syria in 903, and for a time the
Messianic expectations associated with the Mahdi nevertheless did not materialize, contrary to the expectations of his propagandists and followers who expected him to do wonders.[80] Al-Mahdi attempted to downplay messianism and asserted that the propaganda of Muhammad ibn Isma'il's return as the Mahdi had only been a ruse to avoid Abbasid persecution and protect the real imam predecessors of his. The Mahdi was actually a collective title of the true imams from the progeny of Ja'far al-Sadiq.[88] In a bid to gain time, al-Mahdi also sought to shift the messianic expectations on his son, al-Qa'im: by renaming himself as Abdallah Abu Muhammad, and his son as Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad rather than his original name, Abd al-Rahman, the latter would bear the name Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdallah. This was the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and it hand been prophesied that the Mahdi would also bear it.[89] The Fatimids eventually dropped the millenarian rhetoric.[80]
The Tayyibi Musta'li Isma'ili Shi'ah believe that their Occulted Imam and Mahdi is Abu'l-Qasim al-Tayyib, son of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah.[90][91]
Zaydism
In Zaydism, the concept of imamate is different from the Isma'ili and Twelver branches; a Zaydi Imam is any respectable person from the descendants of Ali and Fatima who lays claim to political leadership and struggles for its acquisition. As such, the Zaydi imamate doctrine lacks eschatological characteristics and there is no end-times redeemer in Zaydism. The title of mahdi has been applied to several Zaydi imams as an honorific over the centuries.[c][93][94]
Ahmadiyya belief
In the Ahmadiyya belief, the prophesied eschatological figures of Christianity and Islam, the Messiah and Mahdi, actually refer to the same person. These prophecies were fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), the founder of the movement;[95] he is held to be the Mahdi and the manifestation of Jesus.[96][97] However, the historical Jesus in their view, although escaped crucifixion, nevertheless died and will not be coming back. Instead, God made Mirza Ghulam Ahmad the exact alike of Jesus in character and qualities.[98][99] Similarly, the Mahdi is not an apocalyptic figure to launch global jihad and conquer the world, but a peaceful mujaddid (renewer of religion), who spreads Islam with "heavenly signs and arguments".[95]
Mahdi claimants
Throughout history, various individuals have claimed to be or were proclaimed to be the Mahdi. Claimants have included
Ibn Khaldun noted a pattern where embracing a Mahdi claimant enabled unity among tribes and/or a region, often enabled them to forcibly seize power, but the lifespan of such a force was usually limited,[103] as their Mahdi had to conform to hadith prophesies—winning their battles and bringing peace and justice to the world before Judgement Day—which (so far) none have.
Comparative religion
Buddhism
The Mahdi figure in Islam can be likened to the Maitreya figure of Buddhism. Both are prophesied saviors sharing a messianic-like quality, and both are predicted to exert a form of world rulership.[104][105][106]
Judaism
The prophesied savior duo of the Mahdi and the Messiah in Islam can be likened to the prophesied pair of the two
See also
- List of Mahdi claimants
- Signs of the appearance of Mahdi
- Moshiach
- Du'a al-Faraj
Notes
- ^ D. S. Atema first dated this hadith to between Yazid's death and Ibn al-Zubayr's death. Wilferd Madelung narrowed this down to 684, just after the death of Yazid.[9] Michael Cook and David Cook have contested Madelung's dating. It is nevertheless generally accepted that the hadith is patterned on Ibn al-Zubayr's career.[10][11] David Cook further states that the latter part of the hadith is totally legendary and is unrelated to Ibn al-Zubayr.[11]
- ^ The leaders of the movement at this stage laid no claim to the imamate as the Mahdi was thought to be the last imam.[76]
- ^ The extinct Zaydi sect of Husayniyya from western Yemen believed in the return of al-Husayn al-Mahdi li-din Allah (d. 1013) as the Mahdi.[92]
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: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link - ISBN 978-0878500956.
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