Maithili language
Maithili | |
---|---|
मैथिली | |
Maithil | |
Native speakers | 22 million (2000)[1] |
| |
Early forms |
|
Dialects | |
Devanagari and Tirhuta script (the original script of Maithili language) | |
Official status | |
Official language in |
|
Regulated by | Sahitya Akademi, Maithili Academy, Maithili - Bhojpuri Academy, Delhi, Nepal Academy |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 | mai |
ISO 639-3 | mai |
Glottolog | mait1250 |
Maithili-speaking region of India and Nepal |
Maithili (English:
The language is predominantly written in
Official status
In 2003, Maithili was included in the
Gopal Jee Thakur of the Bharatiya Janata Party is the first Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha who speaks in the Maithili language in the Parliament of India.[12] He is currently the MP for Darbhanga.[13]
The
Geographic distribution
In India, Maithili is spoken mainly in
In Nepal, Maithili is spoken mainly in the
Classification
In the 19th century, linguistic scholars considered Maithili as a dialect of a
Chatterji grouped Maithili with the Magadhi Prakrit.[20]
Dialects
Maithili varies greatly in dialects.[21] The standard form of Maithili is Sotipura also called Central Maithili,[22] which is mainly spoken in Dorbhanga, Samastipur and Saharsa districts in Bihar, India.[23]
- Northern Maithili mainly spoken in
- Thēthi is spoken mainly in Kosi, Purnia and Munger divisions and Mokama in Bihar and some adjoining districts of Nepal.[25]
- Angika dialect is spoken in and around Bhagalpur, Banka,[26] Jamui, Munger[27]
- Several other dialects of Maithili are spoken in India and Nepal, including Dehati, Deshi, Kisan, Bantar, Barmeli, Musar, Tati and Jolaha. All the dialects are intelligible to native Maithili speakers.[16]
Origin and history
The name Maithili is derived from the word
The beginning of Maithili language and literature can be traced back to the '
After the fall of
In 1324, Ghyasuddin Tughluq, the emperor of
The earliest reference to Maithili or Tirhutiya is in Amaduzzi's preface to Beligatti's Alphabetum Brammhanicum, published in 1771.[34] This contains a list of Indian languages amongst which is 'Tourutiana.' Colebrooke's essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, written in 1801, was the first to describe Maithili as a distinct dialect.[35]
Many devotional songs were written by Vaisnava saints, including in the mid-17th century, Vidyapati and Govindadas. Mapati Upadhyaya wrote a drama titled Pārijātaharaṇa in Maithili. Professional troupes, mostly from dalit classes known as Kirtanias, the singers of bhajan or devotional songs, started to perform this drama in public gatherings and the courts of the nobles. Lochana (c. 1575 – c. 1660) wrote Rāgatarangni, a significant treatise on the science of music, describing the rāgas, tālas, and lyrics prevalent in Mithila.[36]
During the
After the demise of Maheshwar Singh, the ruler of Darbhanga Raj, in 1860, the Raj was taken over by the British Government as regent. The Darbhanga Raj returned to his successor, Maharaj Lakshmishvar Singh, in 1898. The Zamindari Raj had a lackadaisical approach toward Maithili. The use of Maithili language was revived through personal efforts of MM Parameshvar Mishra, Chanda Jha, Munshi Raghunandan Das and others.[41][42]
Publication of Maithil Hita Sadhana (1905), Mithila Moda (1906), and Mithila Mihir (1908) further encouraged writers. The first social organisation, Maithil Mahasabha,
Babu Bhola Lal Das wrote Maithili Grammar (Maithili Vyakaran). He edited a book Gadya Kusumanjali and edited a journal Maithili.[45] In 1965, Maithili was officially accepted by
In 2002, Maithili was recognised on the VIII schedule of the Indian Constitution as a major Indian language; Maithili is now one of the twenty-two Scheduled languages of India.[48]
The publishing of Maithili books in Mithilakshar script was started by Acharya Ramlochan Saran.[49][50]
Phonology
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
short | long | short | long | short | long | |
Close | ɪ ⟨इ⟩ | iː ⟨ई⟩ | ʊ ⟨उ⟩ | uː ⟨ऊ⟩ | ||
Mid | e ⟨ऎ⟩ | eː ⟨ए⟩ | ə~ɐ ⟨अ⟩ | əː ⟨अऽ⟩ | o ⟨ऒ⟩ | oː ⟨ओ⟩ |
Open | æ~ɛ ⟨ऍ⟩ | a ⟨ॴ⟩ | aː ⟨आ⟩ | ɔ ⟨अ꣱⟩ | ||
Diphthongs
|
əɪ̯ ⟨ऐ⟩ əe̯ ⟨ꣾ⟩ | əʊ̯ ⟨औ⟩ əo̯ ⟨ॵ⟩ |
- All vowels have nasalcounterparts, represented by "~" in IPA and ँ on the vowels, like आँ ãː .
- All vowel sounds are realised as nasal when occurring before or after a nasal consonant.[51]
- Sounds eː and oː are often replaced by diphthongs əɪ̯ and əʊ̯.[citation needed]
- ɔ is replaced by ə in northern dialects and by o in southernmost dialects.
- There are three short vowels that were described by Grierson, but are not counted by modern grammarians. But they could be understood as syllable break: ॳ /ɘ̆/, इ /ɪ̆/, उ /ʊ̆/ . Or as syllable break ऺ in Devanagari and "." in IPA.
- ꣾ is a Unicode letter in Devanagari, (IPA /əe̯/) which is not supported currently on several browsers and operating systems, along with its mātrā (vowel sign).
The following
- अय़(ꣾ) /əe̯/ ~ /ɛː/ - अय़सन (ꣾ सन) /əe̯sən/ ~ /ɛːsɐn/ 'like this'
- अव़(ॵ) /əo̯/ ~ /ɔː/- चव़मुख(चॏमुख) /tɕəo̯mʊkʰ/ ~ /tɕɔːmʊkʰ/ 'four faced'
- अयॆ /əe̯/ - अयॆलाः /əe̯laːh/ 'came'
- अवॊ (अऒ) /əo̯/ - अवॊताः /əo̯taːh/ 'will come'
- आइ /aːi̯/ - आइ /aːi̯/ 'today'
- आउ /aːu̯/ - आउ /aːu̯/ 'come please'
- आयॆ (आऎ) /aːe̯/ - आयॆल /aːe̯l/ 'came'
- आवॊ (आऒ) /aːo̯/ - आवॊब /aːo̯b/ 'will come'
- यु (इउ) /iu̯/ - घ्यु /ɡʱiu̯/ 'ghee'
- यॆ (इऎ) /ie̯/ - यॆः /ie̯h/ 'only this'
- यॊ (इऒ) /io̯/ - कह्यो /kəhio̯/ 'any day'
- वि (उइ) /ui̯/ - द्वि /dui̯/ 'two'
- वॆ (उऎ) /ue̯/ - वॆ: /ue̯h/ 'only that'
A peculiar type of phonetic change is recently taking place in Maithili by way of epenthesis, i.e. backward transposition of final /i/ and /u/ in all sort of words.[52] Thus:
Standard Colloquial - Common Pronunciation
- अछि /ətɕʰi/ - अइछ /əitɕʰ/ 'is'
- रवि /rəbi/ - रइब /rəib/ 'Sunday'
- मधु /mədʱu/ - मउध /məudʱ/ 'honey'
- बालु /ba:lu/ - बाउल /ba:ul/ 'sand'
Consonants
Maithili has four classes of
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Retroflex | Palatal
|
Velar | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m ⟨म⟩ | n ⟨न⟩
|
ɳ ⟨ण⟩ | (ɲ) ⟨ञ⟩ | ŋ ⟨ङ⟩ | |||
Plosive/ Affricate |
voiceless | unaspirated | p ⟨प⟩ | t ⟨त⟩
|
ʈ ⟨ट⟩ | tɕ ⟨च⟩ | k ⟨क⟩ | |
aspirated | pʰ ⟨फ⟩ | tʰ ⟨थ⟩ | ʈʰ ⟨ठ⟩ | tɕʰ ⟨छ⟩ | kʰ ⟨ख⟩ | |||
voiced | unaspirated | b ⟨ब⟩ | d ⟨द⟩
|
ɖ ⟨ड⟩ | dʑ ⟨ज⟩ | ɡ ⟨ग⟩ | ||
aspirated
|
bʱ ⟨भ⟩ | dʱ ⟨ध⟩ | ɖʱ ⟨ढ⟩ | dʑʱ ⟨झ⟩ | ɡʱ ⟨घ⟩ | |||
Fricative | voiceless | (ɸ~f) ⟨फ़⟩ | s ⟨स⟩ | (ʂ) ⟨ष⟩ | (ɕ) ⟨श⟩ | (x) ⟨ख़⟩ | -(h)* ⟨ः⟩ | |
voiced | (z) ⟨ज़⟩ | (ʑ) ⟨झ़⟩ | ɦ ⟨ह⟩ | |||||
Rhotic | unaspirated | r ⟨र⟩
|
(ɽ) ⟨ड़⟩ | |||||
aspirated | (ɽʱ) ⟨ढ़⟩ | |||||||
Lateral | l ⟨ल⟩
|
|||||||
Approximant | (ʋ~w) ⟨व⟩ | (j) ⟨य⟩ |
- Fricative sounds [ʂ, ɕ] only occur marginally, and are typically pronounced as a dental fricative /s/ in most styles of pronunciation. [h] ः is always added after a vowel.
Stops
There are four series of stops-
- tenuis, as /p/, which is like ⟨p⟩ in English spin
- voiced, as /b/, which is like ⟨b⟩ in English bin
- aspirated, as /pʰ/, which is like ⟨p⟩ in English pin, and
- aspirated voiced, as /bʱ/.
Apart from the retroflex series, all the rest four series show full phonological contrast in all positions. The retroflex tenius /ʈ/ and /ʈʰ/ show full contrast in all positions. /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ show phonological contrast mainly word-initially.[53] Both are defective phonemes, occurring intervocalically and word finally only if preceded by a nasal consonant. Word finally and postvocalically, /ɖʱ/ surfaces as [ɽʱ~rʱ].[54] Non-initially, both are interchangeable with [ɽ~ɾ] and [ɽʱ~rʱ] respectively.[53]
Fricatives
/s/ and /ɦ/ are most common fricatives. They show full phonological opposition. [ɕ], which is present in tatsama words, is replaced by /s/ most of the times, when independent, and prevocalic [ʂ] is replaced by /kʰ/, [x][53] or /s/. [ɕ] occurs before /tɕ/ and [ʂ] before /ʈ/. [x] and [f] occurs in Perso-Arabic loanwords, generally replaced by /kʰ/ and /pʰ/ respectively. [x] and [ɸ] also occurs in Sanskrit words (jihvamuliya and upadhmaniya), which is peculiar to Maithili.
Sonorants
/m/ and /n/ are present in all phonological positions. /ŋ/ occurs only non-initially and is followed by a homorganic stop, which may be deleted if voiced, which leads to the independent presence of /ŋ/. /ɳ/ occurs non-initially, followed by a homorganic stop, and is independent only in tatsama words, which is often replaced with /n/. [ɲ] occurs only non-initially and is followed by a homorganic stop always. It is the only nasal which does not occur independently.
- In most styles of pronunciation, the retroflex flap [ɽ] occurs marginally. It is usually pronounced as an alveolar tap [ɾ] sound, and is often interchanged with /r/.[53]
- Approximant sounds [ʋ, w, j] and fricative sounds [ɸ, f, z, ɕ, ʑ, ʂ, x], mainly occur in words that are borrowed from Sanskrit or in words of Perso-Arabic origin. The conjunct ष्प (IAST ṣp) is pronounced [ɸp] in Maithili e.g. पुष्प [puɸp(ə)]. The conjunct ह्य (IAST hy) is pronounced [ɦʑ] as in ग्रऻह्य (grahya) [graɦʑə].[53]
There are four non-syllabic vowels in Maithili- i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. Most of the times, these are written without nukta.
Morphology
Nouns
An example declension:
Case name | Singular Inflection | Plural Inflection | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | |
Nominative | -इ ɪ | -आ/अ꣱ aː/ɔ | -इन ɪn | -अन, -अनि
ən, ənɪ̆ |
-अन, -अनि
ən, ənɪ̆ | |
Accusative
(Indefinite) |
-ई iː | -ई iː | -आ aː | |||
Instrumental | Postposition used |
-एँ ẽː | Postposition used | -अन्हि
ənʰɪ̆ | ||
Dative | Postposition used | |||||
-इल ɪlə | -अल ələ | No forms | ||||
Ergative | -इएँ ɪẽː | -एँ ẽː | ||||
Ablative | -इतः ɪtəh | -अतः
ətəh | ||||
Genitive | -इक ɪk, इर ɪr | -अक ək, -अर ər | -ईंक ĩːk | -आँँक
ãːk | ||
Locative | Postposition used | -ए eː | Postposition used | -आँ
ãː | ||
Vocative | -इ ɪ/ई iː | -आ/अऽ aː/əː | -इन ɪn | -अन, -अनि
ən, ənɪ̆ |
Adjectives
The difference between adjectives and nouns is very minute in Maithili. However, there are marked adjectives there in Maithili.
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
---|---|---|---|
Definite | -का/क꣱ kaː/kɔ | -कि/कि kɪ/kɪ̆ | का/कऽ kaː/kəː |
Indefinite | -आ/अ꣱ aː/ɔ | -इ/इ ɪ/ɪ̆ | अ/अऽ ᵊ/əː |
Pronouns
Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals, though in most pronouns the genitive case has a different form. The lower forms below are accusative and postpositional. The plurals are formed periphrastically.
Person | First Grade Honour | Honorofic | High Honorofic | |
---|---|---|---|---|
First Person | हम ɦəm
अपना ɐpᵊnaː (Inclusive) | |||
हमरा ɦəmᵊraː
अपना ɐpᵊnaː (Inclusive) | ||||
Second Person | तोँह tõːɦᵊ | अहाँ ɐɦãː | अपने ɐpᵊneː | |
तोँहरा tõːɦᵊraː | ||||
Third Person | Proximate | ई iː | ए eː | |
ऎकरा ekᵊraː | हिनका ɦɪnᵊkaː | |||
ए eː (Neuter) | ||||
ऎहि, ऍ, अथि eɦɪ, æ, ɐtʰɪ (Neuter) | ||||
Non-Proximate | ऊ, वा uː, ʋaː | ओ oː | ||
ऒकरा okᵊraː | हुनका ɦʊnᵊkaː | |||
ऒ o (Neuter) | ||||
ऒहि, ॵ oɦɪ, əʊ (Neuter) |
Orthography
Beginning in the 14th century, the language was written in the
The Tirhuta and Kaithi scripts are both currently included in Unicode.
Devanagari | Tirhuta
|
Transcription | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Image | Text | IAST | IPA | |
क | 𑒏 | ka | /kə/ | |
ख | 𑒐 | kha | /kʰə/ | |
ग | 𑒑 | ga | /gə/ | |
घ | 𑒒 | gha | /gʱə/ | |
ङ | 𑒓 | ṅa | /ŋə/ | |
च | 𑒔 | ca | /t͡ɕə/ | |
छ | 𑒕 | cha | /t͡ɕʰə/ | |
ज | 𑒖 | ja | /d͡ʑə/ | |
झ | 𑒗 | jha | /d͡ʑʱə/ | |
ञ | 𑒘 | ña | (/ɲə/) /nə/ | |
ट | 𑒙 | ṭa | /ʈə/ | |
ठ | 𑒚 | ṭha | /ʈʰə/ | |
ड | 𑒛 | ḍa | /ɖə/ | |
ढ | 𑒜 | ḍha | /ɖʱə/ | |
ण | 𑒝 | ṇa | /ɳə/ or /nə/ | |
त | 𑒞 | ta | /t̪ə/ | |
थ | 𑒟 | tha | /t̪ʰə/ | |
द | 𑒠 | da | /d̪ə/ | |
ध | 𑒡 | dha | /d̪ʱə/ | |
न | 𑒢 | na | /nə/ | |
प | 𑒣 | pa | /pə/ | |
फ | 𑒤 | pha | /pʰə/ | |
ब | 𑒥 | ba | /bə/ | |
भ | 𑒦 | bha | /bʱə/ | |
म | 𑒧 | ma | /mə/ | |
य | 𑒨 | ya | (/jə/) /d͡ʑə/ or /e̯/ | |
र | 𑒩 | ra | /rə/ | |
ल | 𑒪 | la | /lə/ | |
व | 𑒫 | va | (/ʋə/) or /bə/ /o̯/ | |
श | 𑒬 | śa | (/ɕə/) /sə/ | |
ष | 𑒭 | ṣa | /ʂə/ or /sə/ or /kʰə/ | |
स | 𑒮 | sa | /sə/ | |
ह | 𑒯 | ha | /ɦə/ |
Devanagari | Tirhuta | Devanagari | Tirhuta | Transcription | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent | Dependent | ||||||||
Phonetic | Traditional | Image | Text | Phonetic | Traditional | Image | Text | Romanisation | IPA |
अ | 𑒁 | [a] | [b] | a[c]/∅[d] | /ə/ or /ɐ/ or /ə̆/[c] or ∅[d] | ||||
अ꣱/अऽ/अ' | अऽ[e] | ◌꣱/◌ऽ/◌' | ◌'[f]/ ◌ऽ[e] | å | /ɔ/ ~/ʌ/ | ||||
ॴ | आ | 𑒂 | ऻ | ा | 𑒰 | a/ă | /a/ | ||
आ | ा | ā | /аː/ | ||||||
इ | 𑒃 | ि | 𑒱 | і | /ɪ/ | ||||
not possible in initial position or independent (after vowel) | ि'[g] | ि | ĭ/i | /ɪ̆/ | |||||
ई | 𑒄 | ी | 𑒲 | ī | /іː/ | ||||
उ | 𑒅 | ु | 𑒳 | u | /ʊ/ | ||||
not possible in initial position (after vowel) | ु'[h] | ु | ŭ/u | /ʊ̆/ | |||||
ऊ | 𑒆 | ू | 𑒴 | ū | /uː/ | ||||
ऋ | 𑒇 | ृ | 𑒵 | ṛ | /r̩/ or /rɪ/ | ||||
ॠ | 𑒈 | ॄ | 𑒶 | ṝ | /r̩ː/ or /riː/ | ||||
ऌ | 𑒉 | ॢ | 𑒷 | ḷ | /l̩/ or /lɪ/ | ||||
ऍ | ऍ/ऐ | ॅ[i] | ॅ/ै | æ/ê | /æ/ ~/ɛ/[i] | ||||
ऎ | ए | ॆ | े | 𑒺 | e | /е/ | |||
ए | 𑒋 | े | 𑒹 | ē | /еː/ | ||||
ꣾ | ऐ | 𑒌 | ◌ꣿ | ै | 𑒻 | ai | /ai/ | ||
ऐ | ै | āі | /аːі/ | ||||||
ऒ | ओ | ॊ | ो | 𑒽 | о | /о/ | |||
ओ | 𑒍 | ो | 𑒼 | ō | /оː/ | ||||
ॵ | औ | 𑒎 | ॏ | ौ | 𑒾 | au | /au/ | ||
औ | ौ | āu | /aːu/ |
Literature
Sample text
The following sample text is Maithili translation of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Maithili in the
Maithili in the Devanagari alphabet
Maithili in
Translation
See also
- Languages with official status in India
- List of Indian languages by total speakers
Notes
- ^ Grierson and Hoernle used ◌॰ for pronounced schwa, and ◌• for the absent schwa in some of his works.
- ^ Sometimes ◌' or even ◌ऽ is used for word final pronounced schwa, however not all of them are treated same, often only used to avoid confusion.
- ^ a b The notation a can be used for non-final weak schwa, Maithili weakens the non-final schwa, instead of deleting it (pronounced as /ə̆/). Grierson also used a for the purpose, but sometimes used apostrophe (') also for the purpose.
- ^ a b Final schwa is deleted in Maithili, though written in native scripts.
- ^ a b In older texts, ◌꣱ or ः are used, not in current use though.
- ^ ◌' is used only word finally.
- ^ Grierson used ि् .
- ^ Grierson used ु् .
- ^ a b Occurrence of æ~ɛ is a recent phenomenon.
Citations
- ^ Maithili at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
- ^ "झारखंड : रघुवर सरकार कैबिनेट से मगही, भोजपुरी, मैथिली व अंगिका को द्वितीय भाषा का दर्जा". Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ^ "Maithili". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ a b "Constitutional provisions relating to Eighth Schedule" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
- ^ "मैथिली लिपि को बढ़ावा देने के लिए विशेषज्ञों की जल्द ही बैठक बुला सकते हैं प्रकाश जावड़ेकर" [Prakash Javadekar likely to call meeting of experts to promote Maithili script]. NDTV News (in Hindi). 21 March 2018. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ^ "मैथिली को भी मिलेगा दूसरी राजभाषा का दर्जा". Hindustan. 6 March 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
- ^ National Statistics Office (2023), p. 32.
- ^ "Nepal languages". Ethnologue. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
- ^ Sah, K. K. (2013). "Some perspectives on Maithili". Nepalese Linguistics (28): 179–188.
- ^ a b
- Language Commission (6 September 2021). सरकारी कामकाजको भाषाका आधारहरूको निर्धारण तथा भाषासम्बन्धी सिफारिसहरू (पञ्चवर्षीय प्रतिवेदन- साराांश) २०७८ (PDF) (Report) (in Nepali). Government of Nepal. Report summary (19 pp.). Archived from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- Language Commission (6 September 2021). सरकारी कामकाजको भाषासम्बन्धी सिफारिसहरू सरकारी कामकाजको भाषा सिफारिस प्रतिवेदन (PDF) (Report) (in Nepali). Government of Nepal. Full report (280 pp.; 20.53 MB). Archived from the original on 24 October 2023.
- News report: "सरकारी कामकाजका लागि कुन प्रदेशमा कुन भाषा सिफारिस ?" [What language is recommended for government work in which province?]. Nepal Press (in Nepali). 6 September 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
- ^ "झारखंड : रघुवर कैबिनेट से मगही, भोजपुरी, मैथिली व अंगिका को द्वितीय भाषा का दर्जा". Prabhat Khabar (in Hindi). 21 March 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
- ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
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During the sixteenth century, a form of an artificial literary language became established ... It was the Brajabulī dialect ... Brajabulī is practically the Maithilī speech as current in Mithilā, modified in its forms to look like Bengali.
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Further reading
- National Statistics Office (June 2023), "National report on caste/ethnicity, language & religion" (PDF), National Population and Housing Census 2021, Government of Nepal, Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, archived from the original on 14 October 2023