Malay language

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This article is about the language on which Standard Indonesian and Malaysian are based. For the vernacular varieties and dialects of Malay, see Malayic languages. For the standard Malay used in Malaysia, see Malaysian Malay.
Not to be confused with Malayalam, a Dravidian language.

Malay
Malay/Indonesian[1]
Bahasa Melayu
بهاس ملايو
Pronunciation
Southern Thailand, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands
EthnicityMalays

Various ethnic groups in Indonesia (as Indonesian)

(see also Malayophones)
SpeakersL1: 82 million (2004–2010)[2]
Total (L1 and L2): 200–290 million (2009)[3]
Austronesian
  • Old Malay
    • Classical Malay
      • Pre-Modern Malay
Standard forms
Manually Coded Malay
Official status
Official language in
Recognised minority
language in
Glottolognucl1806
Linguasphere31-MFA-a
A speaker of the Indonesian variant in the Netherlands
A speaker of the Malaysian variant in Langkawi
A young man speaks Kedah Malay

Malay (

Jawi: بهاس ملايو) is an Austronesian language that is an official language of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and that is also spoken in East Timor and parts of Thailand. Altogether, it is spoken by 290 million people (including 260 million as "Indonesian") across Maritime Southeast Asia.[10][11]

The language is

pluricentric, i.e., several varieties of it are standardized as the national language (bahasa kebangsaan or bahasa nasional) of several nation states with various official names: in Malaysia, it is designated as either Bahasa Malaysia ("Malaysian") or also Bahasa Melayu ("Malay language"); in Singapore and Brunei, it is called Bahasa Melayu ("Malay language"); in Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety called Bahasa Indonesia ("Indonesian language") is designated the bahasa persatuan/pemersatu ("unifying language" or lingua franca) whereas the term "Malay" (bahasa Melayu) is domestically restricted to vernacular varieties of Malay indigenous to areas of Central to Southern Sumatra and West Kalimantan.[12][b]

Makassar Malay, which appears to be a mixed language
.

Origin

Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malayic homeland being in western

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, a descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language, began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of Austronesian peoples into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan.[15]

History

Main article: History of the Malay language
Bangka Belitung, Singapore, Malay Peninsula (also known as: Kra Peninsula), Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam, Kalimantan, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, and ended as the Kingdom of Dharmasraya in Jambi
in the 13th century.

The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods: Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Classical Malay, Late Modern Malay and Modern Malay. Old Malay is believed to be the actual ancestor of Classical Malay.[16]

Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit, the classical language of

Old Malay throughout the Malay Archipelago. It was the working language of traders and it was used in various ports, and marketplaces in the region.[18]

Other evidence is the Tanjung Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters.[19] This 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text was produced in the Adityawarman era (1345–1377) of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who today still live in the highlands of Sumatra, Indonesia.

Terengganu Inscription Stone (Malay: Batu Bersurat Terengganu; Jawi: باتو برسورت ترڠݢانو) is a granite stele carrying inscription in Jawi script that was found in Terengganu, Malaysia is the earliest evidence of classical Malay inscription. The inscription, dated possibly to 702 AH (corresponds to 1303 CE), constituted the earliest evidence of Jawi writing in the Malay world of Southeast Asia, and was one of the oldest testimonies to the advent of Islam as a state religion in the region. It contains the proclamation issued by a ruler of Terengganu known as Seri Paduka Tuan, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance.

The classical Malay language came into widespread use as the lingua franca of the region during the Malacca Sultanate era (1402–1511). It was the period the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature. The development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Sanskrit, and Tamil vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay. When the court moved to establish the Johor Sultanate, it continued using the classical language; it has become so associated with Dutch Riau and British Johor that it is often assumed that the Malay of Riau is close to the classical language. However, there is no closer connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular.[20]

Among the oldest surviving letters written in Malay are the letters from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, dated around 1521–1522. The text is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão.[21] The letters show sign of non-native usage; the Ternateans used (and still use) the unrelated Ternate language, a West Papuan language, as their first language. Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications.[21]

Classification

See also: Austronesian languages § Comparison charts

Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.

Within Austronesian, Malay is part of a cluster of numerous closely related forms of speech known as the Malayic languages, which were spread across Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago by Malay traders from Sumatra. There is disagreement as to which varieties of speech popularly called "Malay" should be considered dialects of this language, and which should be classified as distinct Malay languages. The vernacular of Brunei—Brunei Malay—for example, is not readily intelligible with the standard language, and the same is true with some lects on the Malay Peninsula such as Kedah Malay. However, both Brunei and Kedah are quite close.[22]

Writing system

Main article:
Malay alphabet
Rencong alphabet, a native writing system found in central and South Sumatra
. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): "haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: "I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come" (hitu adik sa- is the rest of 4th line.
Old Malay language in South Sumatra
, Indonesia.

Malay is now written using the

Hindu-Arabic numerals
.

Final pages of the Taj al-Salatin, The Crown of Kings, a Malay "mirror for princes", copied by Muhammad bin Umar Syaikh Farid on 31 July 1824 CE in Penang in Jawi script. British Library

Rumi (Latin) and Jawi are co-official in Brunei only. Names of institutions and organisations have to use Jawi and Rumi (Latin) scripts. Jawi is used fully in schools, especially the religious school, sekolah agama, which is compulsory during the afternoon for Muslim students aged from around 6–7 up to 12–14.

Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi in Malaysia, and students taking Malay language examinations in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi.

The Latin script, however, is the most commonly used in Brunei and Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes.

Historically, Malay has been written using various scripts. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using the

Rumi script.[23]

Extent of use

See also: Malay trade and creole languages and Pluricentric language
A Malay traffic sign in Malaysia.
Indonesian road signs in Jakarta, Indonesia. The blue sign reads "Lajur Khusus Menurunkan Penumpang" which means "Lane for dropping passengers only" and the small no-parking sign on the left reads "Sampai Rambu Berikutnya" which means "until next sign" in Indonesian

Malay is spoken in

vernacular dialect called Brunei Malay. In East Timor, Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of two working languages (the other being English), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese.[8] The extent to which Malay is used in these countries varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia, and became the sole official language in Peninsular Malaysia in 1968 and in East Malaysia gradually from 1974. English continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that in Malaysia. In the Philippines, Indonesian is spoken by the overseas Indonesian community concentrated in Davao City. Functional phrases are taught to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
as well as local students.

Phonology

Main article: Malay phonology

Malay, like most Austronesian languages, is not a

tonal language
.

Consonants

The consonants of Malaysian[26][27][28] and also Indonesian[29] are shown below. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in brackets.

Malay consonant phonemes
Labial Dental/
Alveolar
Post‑alv./
Palatal
 Velar Glottal
Nasal m
n
 		ɲ ŋ
Stop/
Affricate
 voiceless p
t
 		t͡ʃ k (ʔ)
voiced b
d
 		d͡ʒ ɡ
Fricative voiceless (f) s (ʃ) (x) h
voiced (v) (z) (ɣ)
Approximant semivowel w j
lateral
l
Trill
r

Orthographic note: The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:

  • /ð/ is 'z', the same as the /z/ sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the /ð/ sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with /z/ sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers).
  • /ɲ/ is 'ny'; 'n' before 'c' and 'j'
  • /ŋ/ is 'ng'
  • /θ/ is represented as 's', the same as the /s/ sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the /θ/ sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with /s/ sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers). Previously (before 1972), this sound was written 'th' in Standard Malay (not Indonesian)
  • the glottal stop /ʔ/ is final 'k' or an apostrophe ' (although some words have this glottal stop in the middle, such as rakyat)
  • /tʃ/ is 'c'
  • /dʒ/ is 'j'
  • /ʃ/ is 'sy'
  • /x/ is 'kh'
  • /j/ is 'y'
  • /q/ is 'k'

Loans from Arabic:

  • Phonemes which occur only in Arabic loans may be pronounced distinctly by speakers who know Arabic. Otherwise they tend to be replaced with native sounds.
Table of borrowed Arabic consonants
Distinct Assimilated Example
/x/ /k/, /h/ khabar, kabar "news"
/ð/ /
l
/		 redha, rela "good will"
/zˤ/ /
l/, /z
/		 lohor, zuhur "noon (prayer)"
/ɣ/ /
r
/		 ghaib, raib "hidden"
/ʕ/ /ʔ/ saat, sa'at "second (time)"
/θ/ /s/ Selasa "Tuesday"
/q/ /k/ makam "grave"


Vowels

Malay originally had four vowels, but in many dialects today, including Standard Malay, it has six, with /i/ split into /i, e/ and /u/ split into /u, o/.[26] Many words are commonly pronounced variably, with either [i, u] or [e, o], and relatively few words require a mid vowel [e, o].

Table of vowel phonemes of Standard Malay
Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a

Orthographic note: both /e/ and /ə/ are written with ⟨e⟩. Orthographic /e, o/ are relatively rare, so the letter ⟨e⟩ usually represents /ə/. There are some homographs; for example, perang is used for both /pəraŋ/ "war" and /peraŋ ~ piraŋ/ "blond". (In Indonesia, "blond" may be written perang or pirang.)

Some analyses regard /ai, au, oi/ as diphthongs.[30][31] However, [ai] and [au] can only occur in open syllables, such as cukai ("tax") and pulau ("island"). Words with a phonetic diphthong in a closed syllable, such as baik ("good") and laut ("sea"), are actually two syllables. An alternative analysis therefore treats the phonetic diphthongs [ai], [au] and [oi] as a sequence of a monophthong plus an approximant: /aj/, /aw/ and /oj/ respectively.[32]

There is a rule of vowel harmony: the non-open vowels /i, e, u, o/ in bisyllabic words must agree in height, so hidung ("nose") is allowed but *hedung is not.[33]

Comparison of several standard pronunciations of Malay[34]
Johor-Riau

Pronunciation

Northern

Pronunciation

Baku & Indonesian

Pronunciation

⟨a⟩ in final open syllable /ə/ /a/ /a/
⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩ /e/ /i/ /i/
⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants /e/ /e/ /i/
⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩ /o/ /u/ /u/
⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants /o/ /o/ /u/
final ⟨r⟩ silent /r/ /r/

Study by Uri Tadmor which was published in 2003 shows that mutation of ⟨a⟩ in final open syllable is an areal feature. Specifically, it is an areal feature of Western Austronesia. Uri Tadmor classify those types into four groups as below.[35]

Final /a/ mutation in Malay-Indonesian dialects and nearby Austronesian languages
Types Phonemes "Malay" provenance Native languages area
[a] (origin) [a] Kedah, Brunei Arekan (eg.
East Indonesia
Raised [ə], [ɨ] Johor, Pontianak, Tanah Abang (Jakarta) Bali
Rounded [o], [ɔ] Pattani, Palembang Minangkabau, Mataraman (eg. Yogyakarta)
Fronted [ɛ], [e] Perak, Jakarta, Sambas

Grammar

Main article: Malay grammar

Malay is an

derived from other words by means of prefixes, suffixes and circumfixes
.

Malay does not make use of

inflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as 'yesterday') or by other tense indicators, such as sudah 'already' and belum 'not yet'. On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote voice or intentional and accidental moods
.

Malay does not have a

grammatical subject in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an agent and an object, these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.[citation needed
]

Vocabulary and borrowed words

Main article: List of loanwords in Malay

The Malay language has many words borrowed from

Sanskrit, Tamil, certain Sinitic languages, Persian (due to historical status of Malay Archipelago as a trading hub), and more recently, Portuguese, Dutch and English
(in particular many scientific and technological terms).

Varieties and related languages

Main article: Malayic languages
Jakartan Creole Malay (Betawi language)

There is a group of closely related languages spoken by

mutually intelligible
to varying extents, though the distinction between language and dialect is unclear in many cases.

Para-Malay includes the Malayan languages of

Duano’.[36]

Aboriginal Malay are the Malayan languages spoken by the Orang Asli (Proto-Malay) in Malaya. They are Jakun, Orang Kanaq, Orang Seletar, and Temuan.

The other Malayan languages, included in neither of these groups, are associated with the expansion of the Malays across the archipelago. They include Malaccan Malay (

Banjarese. Menterap
may belong here.

There are also several

Sabah Malay
, which may be more or less distinct from standard (Malaccan) Malay.

Due to the early settlement of a

Afrikaans
.

Usages

The Alamat Langkapuri from British Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka). Initially published between 1869–1870 and written in Jawi script, it is noted to be among the first Malay-language newspaper. The readership consist of the Malay-diaspora in Ceylon as well as in the Malay archipelago.

The extent to which Malay and related Malayan languages are used in the countries where it is spoken varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by

West Malaysia in 1968, and in East Malaysia gradually from 1974. English
continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that of Malaysia.

In Singapore, Malay was historically the lingua franca among people of different nationalities. Although this has largely given way to English, Malay still retains the status of national language and the national anthem, Majulah Singapura, is entirely in Malay. In addition, parade commands in the military, police and civil defence are given only in Malay.

Most residents of the five southernmost provinces of

Yawi
(not to be confused with Jawi), which is similar to Kelantanese Malay, but the language has no official status or recognition.

Owing to earlier contact with the Philippines, Malay words—such as dalam hati (sympathy), luwalhati (glory), tengah hari (midday), sedap (delicious)—have evolved and been integrated into Tagalog and other Philippine languages.

By contrast, Indonesian has successfully become the lingua franca for its disparate islands and ethnic groups, in part because the colonial language, Dutch, is no longer commonly spoken. (In East Timor, which was governed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian is widely spoken and recognized under its Constitution as a 'working language'.)

Besides

Langkat, Palembang Malay and Jambi Malay. Minangkabau, Kerinci and Bengkulu are believed to be Sumatran Malay descendants. Meanwhile, the Jakarta dialect (known as Betawi
) also belongs to the western Malay group.

The eastern varieties, classified either as dialects or

Dili Malay, and Papuan Malay
.

The differences among both groups are quite observable. For example, the word kita means 'we, us' in western, but means 'I, me' in Manado, whereas 'we, us" in Manado is torang and Ambon katong (originally abbreviated from Malay kita orang 'we people'). Another difference is the lack of possessive pronouns (and suffixes) in eastern dialects. Manado uses the verb pe and Ambon pu (from Malay punya 'to have') to mark possession. So 'my name' and 'our house" are translated in western Malay as namaku and rumah kita but kita pe nama and torang pe rumah in Manado and beta pu nama, katong pu rumah in Ambon dialect.

The pronunciation may vary in western dialects, especially the pronunciation of words ending in the vowel 'a'. For example, in some parts of Malaysia and in Singapore, kita (inclusive 'we, us, our') is pronounced as /kitə/, in Kelantan and Southern Thailand as /kitɔ/, in Riau as /kita/, in Palembang as /kito/, in Betawi and Perak as /kitɛ/ and in Kedah and Perlis as /kitɑ/.

Batavian and eastern dialects are sometimes regarded as Malay creole, because the speakers are not ethnically Malay.

Examples

All Malay speakers should be able to understand either of the translations below, which differ mostly in their choice of wording. The words for 'article', pasal and perkara, and for 'declaration', pernyataan and perisytiharan, are specific to the Indonesian and Malaysian standards, respectively, but otherwise all the words are found in both (and even those words may be found with slightly different meanings).

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
English Malay
Indonesian[37] Standard "Malay"[38]
Universal Declaration of Human Rights Pernyataan Umum tentang Hak Asasi Manusia
(General Declaration about Human Rights)		 Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Article 1 Pasal 1 Perkara 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.

(All human beings are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should get along with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.)

Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan sama rata dari segi maruah dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.

(All human beings are born free and are equal in dignity and rights. They have thoughts and feelings and should get along with a spirit of brotherhood.)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In the context of Malaysian education and law, "Bahasa Melayu" is used in formal literature like the Constitution, however "Bahasa Malaysia" is sometimes also used by both Malaysians and moreso Indonesians.
  2. ^ Since the standardized varieties of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore are structurally largely identical and mostly differ in lexicon and to a lesser degree in phonetic details, the umbrella terms "Malay/Indonesian"[1] or "Malay-Indonesian"[13] are often used in the linguistic literature when discussing the structure or history of the language.

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-1-922185-07-5
    .
  2. ^ Malay at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Malay (individual language) at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Indonesian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Standard Malay at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Ambon Malay at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Baba Malay at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    Baba Indonesian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) Closed access icon
    (Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box)
  3. ^ Uli, Kozok (10 March 2012). "How many people speak Indonesian". University of Hawaii at Manoa. Retrieved 20 October 2012. James T. Collins (Bahasa Sanskerta dan Bahasa Melayu, Jakarta: KPG 2009) gives a conservative estimate of approximately 200 million, and a maximum estimate of 250 million speakers of Malay (Collins 2009, p. 17).
  4. ^ "Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards". The Star. 26 August 2008. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012.
  5. ^ Dahlan, H. Abdullah Zaini. Kitabati, Practical Methods for Learning to Read & Write Pegon (Kitabati, Metode Praktis Belajar Membaca & Menulis Pegon). Zaini Press. Accessed April 19, 2023. https://ia903106.us.archive.org/22/items/etaoin/Kitabati.pdf.
  6. ^ The abstract of this journal article is written in Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia), in Latin and in Pegon: Estuningtiyas, R. (2021). Rijal Dakwah: KH. Abdullah Syafi’ie (1910-1985). The International Journal of Pegon : Islam Nusantara Civilization, 5(01), 81-96. https://doi.org/10.51925/inc.v5i01.45
  7. ^ "Recognition of Bahasa Indonesia as an official language of the General Conference of UNESCO". unesco.org no. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
  8. ^ a b "East Timor Languages". www.easttimorgovernment.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  9. ^ Bauer, Laurie (2007). The Linguistic Student's Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  10. Malaysian", 5 million in Indonesia as "Malay" plus 260 million as "Indonesian
    ", etc.
  11. doi:10.52690/jswse.v1i3.114
    . Retrieved 29 January 2021.
  12. ISBN 3-11-012855-1
    .
  13. ^ Tadmor, Uri (2009). "Malay-Indonesian". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 791–818.
  14. ^ Adelaar (2004)
  15. S2CID 62886471
    .
  16. ISBN 978-3-11-081972-4
    .
  17. ^ "Bahasa Melayu Kuno". Bahasa-malaysia-simple-fun.com. 15 September 2007. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  18. ^ Southeast Asia Digital Library: About Malay Archived 16 June 2007 at archive.today
  19. ^ Surakhman, M. Ali (23 October 2017). "Undang-Undang Tanjung Tanah: Naskah Melayu Tertua di Dunia". kemdikbud.go.id (in Indonesian).
  20. ISBN 978-0-86840-598-8
    .
  21. ^
    ISBN 978-0-86840-598-8
    .
  22. ^ Ethnologue 16 classifies them as distinct languages, ISO3 kxd and meo, but states that they "are so closely related that they may one day be included as dialects of Malay".
  23. ^ "Malay (Bahasa Melayu)". Omniglot. Retrieved 30 August 2008.
  24. ^ "Malay Can Be 'Language of ASEAN'". brudirect.com. 24 October 2010. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  25. ISBN 978-983-068-307-2
    .
  26. ^
    doi:10.1017/S002510031100017X
    ..
  27. ISBN 978-983-62-9484-5
    .
  28. ^ Hassan, Abdullah (1972). The Morphology of Malay. University of Edinburgh.
  29. ISSN 1475-3502
    .
  30. ^ Asmah Haji, Omar (1985). Susur galur bahasa Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
  31. ^ Ahmad, Zaharani (1993). Fonologi generatif: teori dan penerapan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
  32. JSTOR 3622989
    .
  33. OCLC 26845189
    .
  34. S2CID 213343934
    .
  35. doi:10.15144/PL-550.15
    . Retrieved 5 November 2022 – via sealang.net/CRCL.
  36. ^ Ethnologue 16 also lists Col, Haji, Kaur, Kerinci, Kubu, Lubu'.
  37. ^ Standard named as stated in: "Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  38. ^ The other language standard aside from "Indonesian" is named simply as "Malay", as stated in: "Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Bahasa Melayu (Malay))". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Further reading

External links

Malay edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indonesian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Malay language.
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Malay.
Look up Category:Malay language or Category:Malay derivations in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malay_language&oldid=1219518708"