Malays (ethnic group)

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(Redirected from
Malay people
)
This article is about the ethnic group. For the race concept, see Malay race. For other uses, see Malay (disambiguation). For citizens of Malaysia, see Malaysians. For the Dravidian ethnolinguistic group, see Malayalis.

Malays
Orang Melayu
اورڠ ملايو‎
baju kurung with a tudong.
Total population
c. 30 million
Regions with significant populations
Malay worldc. 30 million[Note 1]
Malaysia Malaysia17,600,000[Note 2] (2023 census)[1]
Indonesia Indonesia8,553,791[Note 3](2010 census)[2][3]
Thailand Thailand2,150,950[4]
Singapore Singapore545,498 [Note 4](2020 census)[5]
Brunei Brunei314,560[6]
Middle East and North Africa Arab world~50,000[7][8]
Australia Australia33,183[9]
 United Kingdom~33,000
 United States29,431[10]
Myanmar Myanmar~27,000
 Canada16,920[11]
 Japan11,287[12]
Languages
Malay
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Other Austronesian peoples
a Highly naturalized population of mixed origins, but using the 'Malay' identity
The Malay tricolour embodies the philosophy of Kemelayuan.

Malays (

Brunei Darussalam
.

There is considerable linguistic, cultural, artistic and social diversity among the many Malay subgroups, mainly due to hundreds of years of immigration and assimilation of various regional ethnicity and tribes within

Kedah, Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, Melayu and Srivijaya.[13][14]

The advent of the

anak dagang ("traders") and who are predominantly from the Indonesian archipelago such as the Acehnese, Banjarese, Bugis, Mandailing, Minangkabau and Javanese
.

Throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics.

absorbed, shared and transmitted
numerous cultural features of other local ethnic groups, such as those of Minang and Acehnese.

Etymology

Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi, historically linked to the pre-Islamic Melayu Kingdom. The Melayu-Srivijayans were known to construct complex building system in its capital, major cities and important urban centres.
Sejarah Melayu, the hill recorded the advent of Sang Sapurba, a legendary progenitor
for various Malay royal houses in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula and Borneo.

The epic literature, the

root word 'laju', meaning "to accelerate", used to describe the accelerating strong current of the river.[21]

As a place name (toponym)

Prior to the 15th century, the term "Melayu" and its similar-sounding variants appear to apply as an old

toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general.[22]

Other suggestions include the

Parameswara fled (malayo) from the kingdom of Palembang to Malacca.[38]

As an ethnic name (ethnonym)

Malays of Malacca
Portuguese watercolour of Malayan people of Malacca, circa 1540, featured in the Códice Casanatense
A Malay couple
An illustration of a Malay couple, from Reise nach Batavia, between 1669 and 1682
Joget dance
Joget dance from the Malacca Sultanate; many aspects of Malay culture are derived from the Malaccan court

The word "Melayu" as an

Magellan's circumnavigation, that made a reference to how the phrase chiara Malaiu ('Malay ways') was used in the maritime Southeast Asia, to refer to the al parlare de Malaea (Italian for "to speak of Malacca").[40]

Classical Malay literature described the Malays in a narrower sense than the modern interpretation. Hikayat Hang Tuah (ca. 1700, manuscript ca. 1849) only identifies the Malay people as the subject of Malacca Sultanate; Brunei, at that time, is not considered Malay. Hikayat Patani (manuscript: 1876) for example, does not call Patani and Brunei as Malay, that term is only used for Johor. Kedah is not included as Malay in the Kedah chronicle/Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (ca. 1821). Hikayat Aceh (ca. 1625, manuscript ca. 1675) linked Malay ethnicity with Johor, but certainly not Aceh or Deli.[41][42]

Origins

Brunei Darussalam in the Cekak Musang type, worn together with the songket (far left) and kain sarong

Proto-Malay models

Further information: History of Austronesian peoples, Homeland of Austronesian languages

Also known as Melayu asli (aboriginal Malays) or Melayu purba (ancient Malays), the

Austronesian origin and thought to have migrated to the Malay Archipelago in a long series of migrations between 2500 and 1500 BC.[43] Notable Proto-Malays of today are Moken, Jakun, Orang Kuala, Temuan and Orang Kanaq.[44]
The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History, has pointed out a total of three theories of the origin of Malays:

  • The Yunnan theory (published in 1889) – The theory of Proto-Malays originating from Yunnan approximately 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. The theory is supported by R.H Geldern and his team who theorized that their migration occurred from the Mekong River to the Malay Peninsula. Other evidence that supports this theory includes stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago being analogous to Central Asian tools, which shows the similarity of Malay and Assamese customs.[45]
  • The New Guinea/Seafarers theory (published in 1965) – The migration of seafarers with strong oceanographic skills who travelled from island to island between New Zealand and Madagascar. The theory claims the Malay's morphology at the time were similar to that of Negroids.[45]
  • The
    Taiwanese aborigines are their descendants), then to the Philippines and later to Borneo (roughly 4,500 years ago) (today's Dayak and other groups). These ancient people also split with some heading to Sulawesi and others progressing into Java, and Sumatra, all of which now speak languages that belong to the Austronesian Language family. The final migration was to the Malay Peninsula roughly 3,000 years ago. A sub-group from Borneo moved to Champa in modern-day Central and South Vietnam roughly 4,500 years ago. There are also traces of the Dong Son and Hoabinhian migration from Vietnam and Cambodia. All these groups share DNA and linguistic origins traceable to the island that is today Taiwan, and the ancestors of these ancient people are traceable to southern China.[46]

Deutero-Malays

Ladies from Palembang clad in their traditional attire, known as Baju Kurung made from Songket. The dress is commonly associated with women of Malay extraction.

The Deutero-Malays are an

kampungs which serve as the main units in society. These kampungs were normally situated on the riverbanks or coastal areas and generally self-sufficient in food and other necessities. By the end of the 1st century BC, these kampungs were beginning to engage in some trade with the outside world.[50] The Deutero-Malays are considered the direct ancestors of the present-day Malay people.[51]

Expansion from Sundaland model

A more recent theory holds that rather than being populated by expansion from the mainland, the Ice Age populations of the Malay Peninsula, neighbouring Indonesian Archipelago, and the then-exposed continental shelf (Sundaland) instead developed locally from the first human settlers and expanded to the mainland. Proponents of this theory hold that this expansion gives a far more parsimonious explanation of the linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence than earlier models, particularly the Taiwan model.[52] This theory also draws support from recent genetic evidence by Human Genome Organisation suggesting that the primary peopling of Asia occurred in a single migration through Southeast Asia; this route is held to be the modern Malay area and that the diversity in the area developed mainly in-place without requiring major migrations from the mainland. The expansion itself may have been driven by rising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age.[53][54]

Proponent

diffusionist claims.[55][56][57]

Genetic evidence

Malays are an Austronesian-speaking ethnic group of

Insular Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. A study in 2021 concluded that a distinctive Basal-East Asian lineage (sometimes termed as 'East- and Southeast Asian lineage' (ESEA)), which is ancestral to modern East and Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians, originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Basal-East Asian ancestry, as well as later Austroasiatic-associated ancestry, spread into Maritime Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian expansion. Austronesian-speakers themselves are suggested to have arrived on Taiwan and the northern Philippines between 10,000BC to 7,000BC from coastal southern China, and spread from there throughout Insular Southeast Asia. The authors concluded that the Austronesian expansion into Insular Southeast Asia and Polynesia was outgoing from the Philippines rather than Taiwan, and that modern Austronesian-speaking peoples, such as the Malays, have largely ancestry from the earliest Basal-East Asians, Austroasiatic migrants from Mainland Southeast Asia, and Austronesian-speaking seafarers from the Philippines, without much admixture from previous groups.[58][59]

History

Indian influence

Further information: Greater India
Chedi Phra Borommathat, a stupa located in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand. The temple witnessed the rise and fall of Tambralinga, a powerful Buddhist kingdom that managed to conquer Jaffna kingdom in Sri Lanka.

There is no definite evidence which dates the first Indian voyages across the Bay of Bengal but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 CE in the Bujang Valley, shows that a maritime trading route with South Indian Tamil kingdoms was already established since the second century.[60]

The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of maritime Southeast Asia into contact with the major religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Throughout this area a most profound in influence has been exerted by India which seems to have introduced into it architecture, sculpture, writing, monarchy, religion, iron, cotton and a host of elements of higher culture. Indian religions, cultural traditions and Sanskrit began to spread across the land. Hindu temples were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as "raja" and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.[61]

The beginning of the Common Era saw the rise of Malay states in the coastal areas of the

Chaiya,[65] and Jambi.[66]

Srivijaya's influence spread over all the coastal areas of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, western

Old Malay language was used as its official language and became the lingua franca of the region, replacing Sanskrit, the language of Hinduism.[61]
The Srivijayan era is considered the golden age of Malay culture.

The glory of Srivijaya however began to wane after the series of raids by the Tamil

Pamalayu expedition (Pamalayu means "war against the Malays").[68]

In 1299, through the support of the loyal servants of the empire, the

Parameswara, headed north and established the Malacca Sultanate.[70] The new kingdom succeeded Srivijaya and inherited much of the royal and cultural traditions, including a large part of the territories of its predecessor.[71][72][73]

Parameswara, would later establish the Kingdom of Malacca
, bringing the old Palembangese courts traditions and identity into the newfound state.

In the north of the peninsula, the power vacuum left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the growth of the kingdom of

Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I.[74] The invasion marked an unrivaled feature in the history of Southeast Asia
, it was the only time there was an armed maritime expedition beyond the borders of the region.

The cultivation of Malay polity system also diffused beyond the proper Sumatran-Peninsular border during this era. The age avowed by exploration and migration of the Malays to establish kingdoms beyond the traditional Srivijayan realm. Several exemplification are the enthronement of a Tambralingan prince to reign the

Rajahnate of Cebu in the Visayas and the establishment of the Tanjungpura Kingdom in what is now West Kalimantan, Borneo. The expansion is also eminent as it shaped the ethnogenesis development of the related Acehnese and Banjar people
and further spreading the Indian-influenced Malay ethos within the regional sphere.

Islamisation

Further information:
Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and Malayisation
The "Dayak-Malay" brotherhood monument in West Kalimantan Provincial Museum, Pontianak, Indonesia

The period of the 12th and 15th centuries saw the arrival of Islam and the rise of the great port-city of Malacca on the southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula[75] — two major developments that altered the course of Malay history.

The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of what are now the states of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu, from around the 12th century.[76] The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam from the Malay Peninsula is the Terengganu Inscription Stone dating from the 14th century found in Terengganu state, Malaysia.[75]

By the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the western

Classical Malay language,[80] the Islamic faith,[81] and the Malay Muslim culture;[82] the three core values of Kemelayuan ("Malayness").[83]

In 1511, the Malaccan capital fell into the hands of

Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate (1725–1946), Pelalawan Sultanate (1725–1946) and Riau-Lingga Sultanate (1824–1911).[84]

The extent of the Malaccan Sultanate in the 15th century, the legacy of the Malaccan court can be strongly witnessed in the construction of the Malay sociocultural framework until today.

Across the

Sarawak, Sambas, Sukadana and Landak tells a similar tale of recruitment among Dayak people.[87]

Other significant Malay sultanates were the

Langkat Sultanate (1568–1948) and Asahan Sultanate (1630–1948) governed eastern Sumatra. While West Borneo observed the rise of Pontianak Sultanate
(1771–1950), Mempawah Sultanate (1740–1950) and Matam Sultanate (1590–1948).

Colonisation by foreign powers

The reigning elite of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate in 1867. The sultanate would be abolished almost half a century later in 1911 by the Dutch powers, following its strong independence movement against the colonial government.

Between 1511 and 1984, numerous Malay kingdoms and sultanates fell under direct

Siam and Japan
. In 1511, the
ousted the Portuguese from the peninsula. As per agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch later took control of Malacca.[88]

Historically,

redraw the border of the Patani territories and installed a new governance and administrative system.[91][92][93]

In 1786, the island of

British Residents in administration, and the Federated Malay States was formed. In 1909, Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis were handed over by Siam to the British. These states along with Johor, later became known as Unfederated Malay States. During the World War II, all these British possessions and protectorates that collectively known as British Malaya were occupied by the Empire of Japan
.

Pattani
, Saiburi, Nongchik, Yaring, Yala, Legeh and Teluban.

The twilight of the vast Bruneian Empire began during the

White Rajahs of Sarawak, North Borneo Chartered Company and its lower Borneo vassals to Dutch East India Company. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.[94]

Following the

Riau Sultanate
in 1911.

In the late 19th century, Germany was aiming to gain a foothold in the Malay Peninsula. They have made a repeated request to Siam on acquiring

Kiautschou Bay in China and its colonies in the Pacific on one side, and German East Africa
on the other. The island is also desired as it can act as a point of assembly and restocking for its warship during the times of war. A foothold in Langkawi would also guaranteed a further commercial interest to German private investors to cater the needs of port, a coaling station and the future naval base.

In October 1899, Behn, Meyer & Co acting on behalf of the German colonial government approached the Rajah Muda (Crown Prince) of Kedah to lease the island for 50 years with the sum of 60,000 dollars, as the sultan was ill and unable to attend the meeting. By November 1899, the "Deutsche Uebersee-Gesellschaft" (German Overseas Association) was formed by the German trading and shipping company in order to provide loan amounting to 1,000,000 marks to the sultanate.[97] Nonetheless, the plan has come to a major halt, as the application was dismissed by the Kingdom of Siam. The dismissal was largely derived from the Secret Siamese Treaty of 1897, that has required the consent of the British in order for Siam to lease its territory. The crown prince of Kedah was later summoned to Bangkok by Prince Damrong and was warned not to release any concession to other foreign powers without the agreement of Siam.[98]

A further bid by German was allegedly occurred in 1900, when Germany was purported to have approached the Sultan of Trang & Palien on the possibility of acquiring Pulau Lontar, an island located north of Langkawi. Although this report was dismissed by Prince Dewawongse of Siam.[98]

The prospect of a German annexation of the northern peninsula and the potential of its involvement for a

Isthmus of Kra
, posed a serious threat to the British economic interest and political dominance in the region. Severely alarmed, the British and the Siamese entered the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, partitioning the peninsula between the British and the Siamese jurisdiction.

Kuala Kangsar, Perak, Federated Malay States
, 1897

The Anglo-Siamese Treaty attested that the Siamese to control the

abdicated Tunku Baharuddin, the King of Setul, the sole Malay kingdom remained under Siamese territory in 1916. The treaty nonetheless, manage to seal the fate of the Malay states of Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis to retain a degree of their sovereign powers under the British colonial government
, a legacy that can be witnessed today in the Malaysian administrative system.

Later during the

coup d'etat
against the Japanese. It was believed that West Kalimantan took two generations to recover from the near-total collapse of the Malay ruling class in the territory.

Malay nationalism

Malay nationalism.[99][100]
Main articles:
Malay supremacy
See also:
Early Malay nationalism in Riau

Despite the widespread distribution of the Malay population throughout the Malay Archipelago, modern Malay nationalism was only significantly mobilised in the early twentieth century

secession movement can be witnessed in modern-day Indonesia, where both autochthonously-Malay provinces of Riau and Riau Islands sought to gain independence under the name of Republic of Riau. Nevertheless, what follows is specific to the peninsula Malay nationalism that resulted in the formation of the Federation of Malaya
, later reconstituted as Malaysia.

The earliest and most influential instruments of Malay national awakening were the

Malay nationalism was largely mobilised by three nationalist factions — the radicals distinguishable into the Malay left and the Islamic group which were both opposed to the conservative elites.[102]

Malay states and two British Straits Settlements. It achieved independence
in 1957.

The Malay

Malay dominance over Malaya.[102]

The Malay and

Malay monarchy as constituting the key pillars of Malayness, but within a secular state that restricted the political role of Islam. The leftists concurred with the secular state but wanted to end feudalism, whereas the Islamic group favoured ending royalty but sought a much larger role of Islam.[103]

Since the foundation of the

Islamic Republic
.

In March 1946, UMNO emerged with the full support of the Malay sultans from the Conference of Rulers. The new movement forged a close political link between rulers and subjects never before achieved. It generated an excited Malay public opinion which, together with the surprising political apathy of the non-Malays, led to Britain's abandonment of the radical Malayan Union plan. By July, UMNO succeeded in obtaining an agreement with the British to begin negotiations for a new constitution. Negotiations continued from August to November, between British officials on the one hand, and the Sultans' representatives and UMNO and the other.[105]

Two years later the semi independent

Malay rulers thus retained their prerogatives, while their English-educated descendants came to occupy positions of authority at the centre, which was being progressively decolonised. In August 1957, the Federation of Malaya, the West's last major dependency in Southeast Asia, attained independence in a peaceful transfer of power.[105] The federation was reconstituted as Malaysia with the addition in 1963 of Singapore (separated in 1965), Sabah and Sarawak
.

Culture

Language

Kedukan Bukit Inscription written in Pallava script
. Dating back from 683, it is one of the oldest surviving Malay written artefact.
Main article:
Jawi alphabet

The Malay language is one of the most prominent languages of the world, especially of the Austronesian family. Variants and dialects of Malay are used as an official language in Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. The language is also spoken in southern Thailand, Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Sri Lanka. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout the Malay Archipelago and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million.[106]

The oldest form of Malay is descended from the

Classical Malay, which the oldest form dating back to 1303 CE.[107]
Malay evolved into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary when Islam made its way to the region, changing significantly in the process. Initially, Classical Malay was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects, that was developed in the literary tradition of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, eventually became predominant.

The Malaccan era was marked with the transformation of the Malay language into an Islamic language, in similar fashion to Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Swahili. An adapted Arabic script called Jawi was used replacing the Kawi script, Islamic religious and cultural terminologies were abundantly assimilated, discarding many Hindu-Buddhist words, and Malay became the language of Islamic medium of instruction and dissemination throughout Southeast Asian region. At the height of Malacca's power in the 15th century, the Classical Malay spread beyond the traditional Malay speaking world[108] and resulted in a lingua franca that was called Bahasa Melayu pasar ("Bazaar Malay") or Bahasa Melayu rendah ("Low Malay") as opposed to the Bahasa Melayu tinggi ("High Malay") of Malacca.[109] It is generally believed that Bazaar Malay was a pidgin and the most important development, however, has been that pidgin creolised, creating several new languages such as the Ambonese Malay, Manado Malay and Betawi language.[110]

European writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as

Latin in Europe".[111] It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the Malay Archipelago.[112] The reversed was seen in the Spanish East Indies, where mass latinisation of the archipelago during the colonial years resulted the historical coup de grâce
of the Malay language in the Philippines.

The dialect of Johor Sultanate, the direct successor of Malacca, became the standard speech among Malays in Singapore and Malaysia, and it formed the original basis for the standardised Indonesian language.[108][113][114][115]

Apart from the standard Malay, developed within the Malacca-Johor sphere, various local

Pattanese, the Sarawakian, the Terengganuan
, and many others.

The Malay language was historically written in

Rumi script[117]
which eventually became the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, and co-official script in Brunei.

Literature

Kedah
.
Main articles: Malay literature and Malay folklore

The rich oral literature and classical literature of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from the

servant to the minister, from the judge to the Rajas, from the ancient to the very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the Malays.[118]

Considering the softness and mellifluence of the Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are — the Pantun, Syair and Gurindam.

The earliest form of Malay literature was the oral literature and its central subjects are traditional folklore relating to nature, animals and people. The classical Malay folklore is composed of traditional songs and music, heroic poems, animal fables, ghost stories, past events, fairy tales, symbolic lore, myths and bardic tales. Each of the stories possessed its own energy in terms of character, spirit, backdrop and storytelling and was largely crafted with the intend of happiness, guidance, educating, reminiscing, explaining, among few. The folklore were memorised and passed from one generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written down by penglipur lara (storytellers) for example: Hikayat Malim Dewa, Hikayat Malim Deman, Hikayat Raja Donan, Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal, and Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda.

When Indian influences made their way to the Malay Archipelago around 2000 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations of Sanskrit literature and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is full of allusions to Hindu mythology. Probably to this early time may be traced such works as Hikayat Seri Rama (a free translation of the Ramayana), Hikayat Bayan Budiman (an adaptation of Śukasaptati) and Hikayat Panca Tanderan (an adaptation of Hitopadesha).[119]

The era of classical Malay literature started after the arrival of Islam and the invention of Jawi script (Arabic based Malay script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on Malay literature. The Terengganu Inscription Stone, which is dated to 1303, is the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an account of history, law, and romance in Jawi script.[120] At its height, the Malacca Sultanate was not only the center of Islamisation, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions including literature. During this era, notable Middle Eastern literary works were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among famous translated works are Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah and Hikayat Amir Hamzah.

The rise of Malay literature during the period was also penned by other homegrown literary composition coloured by mystical

Sufism of the middle-east, the notable works of Hamzah Fansuri such as Asrar al-Arifin (Rahsia Orang yang Bijaksana; The Secret of the Wise), Sharab al-Asyikin (Minuman Segala Orang yang Berahi; The Drink of All the Passionate) and Zinat al-Muwahidin (Perhiasan Sekalian Orang yang Mengesakan; The Ornament of All the Devoted) can be seen as the magna opera
of the era.

Wayang Kulit (Shadow play) that narrated the heroic tale of Hikayat Seri Rama

The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famed

Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III of Johor in 1612, Tun Sri Lanang oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals.[122]

In the 19th century, the Malay literature received some notable additions, including Kitab Ilmu Bedil (Book of Traditional Weaponry) that provides valuable details of traditional Malay ammunition and weaponry. The era also witnessed the wider usage of Malay medical journals, known as Kitab Tib. These works are indeed important as it serve as references to the Malay knowledge and technology during the classical era.[123] Other 19th century Malay texts were written in Sumatra, these include the Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa (Book of Linguistic Knowledge) by Raja Ali Haji and Perhimpunan Gunawan bagi Laki-Laki dan Perempuan (A Compendium of Charms for Men and Women) by Khatijah Terung, a wife of Raja Haji Abdullah bin Raja Hassan.[124]

The same century also witnessed a monumental shift in the Malay literature through writings of

Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a famous Malacca-born munshi of Singapore.[119] Abdullah is regarded as the most cultured Malay who ever wrote,[119] one of the greatest innovators in Malay letters[108] and the father of modern Malay literature.[120] His most important works are the Hikayat Abdullah (an autobiography), Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan (an account of his trip for the government to Kelantan), and Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah (a narrative of his pilgrimage to Mecca 1854). His work was an inspiration to future generations of writers and marks an early stage in the transition from classical Malay literature to modern Malay literature.[108]

Religion

See also:
Malay Islamic identity
Ramadhan. The wealthy kingdom adopted Melayu Islam Beraja
(Malay Islamic Monarchy) as the national philosophy since its independence in 1984.

The early Malay communities were largely

common era, Hinduism and Buddhism
were introduced by South Asian traders to the Malay Archipelago, where they flourished until the 13th century, just before the arrival of Islam brought by Arab, South Asian and Chinese Muslim traders.

In the 15th century, Islam of the orthodox

Sunni sect flourished in the Malay world under the Malacca Sultanate. In contrast with Hinduism, which superficially transformed early Malay society, Islam can be said to have been fully integrated into the daily life of the population.[125] Since this era, the Malays are considered as ethnoreligious group and traditionally had a close identification with Islam[126] and they have not changed their religion since.[125] This identity is so strong that it is said to become Muslim was to masuk Melayu (to enter Malayness).[77]

Nevertheless, the earlier beliefs having deeper roots, they have maintained themselves against the anathemas of Islam — and indeed

mandi safar festival (Safar bath), a bathing festival to achieve spiritual purity, which can be discerned features similar to some of those of the Durga Puja of India.[129]

A vast majority of modern ethnic Malays are the adherents of

Hari Raya Aidilfitri, Hari Raya Aidiladha, Awal Muharram, and Maulidur Rasul. It is considered apostasy
for Malays to convert out of Islam in Malaysia and Brunei. However, a tiny number of ethnic Malays living outside of these countries have also embraced other religions legally under the law.

Architecture

See also:
Rumah Melayu
Replica of the Malacca Sultanate's Imperial Palace, which was built from information and data obtained from the Malay Annals. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era of Sultan Mansur Shah, who ruled from 1458 to 1477.

Various cultural influences, notably

Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture.[131] Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings.[132] However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of Srivijaya and ancient isthmian
Malay kingdoms.

Buddha image and the summit of structure was erected in the form of stupa with successive, superimposed terraces which is the best example at Wat Pra Borom That of Chaiya.[135]

There is also evidence of Hindu shrines or Candi around south Kedah between the mount Jerai and the Muda River valley, an area known as Bujang Valley. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12 candis located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay beliefs regarding sanctity of high places.[136]

A wall panel adorned with various floral motives from the Setul Mambang Segara palatial residence as seen in the Muzium Negara. Setul was a historical Malay kingdom that existed between 1808 and 1915 in the northern Malay Peninsula.

Early reference on Malay architecture in the Malay Peninsula can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at

Red Earth Kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than a hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits.[138]

The first detailed description of Malay architecture was on the great wooden

Sejarah Melayu, the building had a raised seven bay structures on wooden pillars with a seven tiered roof in cooper shingles and decorated with gilded spires and Chinese glass mirrors.[139]

The traditional

wood carvings. The beauty and quality of Malay wood carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status of the owners themselves.[141]

Throughout many decades, the traditional Malay architecture has been influenced by

Aceh and Minangkabau from the west and Southern Chinese from the east.[142]

Visual art

Burung Petala Indra, a giant mythical bird constructed for the grand circumcision parade of the Kelantanese
prince

Wood carving is a part of classical Malay visual arts. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats, weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora, calligraphy, geometry and cosmic features. The art is done by partially removing the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and orders. The art form, known as ukir, is hailed as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the creator and a gift to his fellowmen.[143]

The art form is mainly attributed to the abundance of timber on the Malay Archipelago and also by the skillfulness of the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna are abundant has inspired the motives to be depicted in abstract or stylised form into the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric and Islamic calligraphy form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of fungi, power-boots beetles and termites.[144]

A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components. The carving on the walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out of the building and can let the sunlight illuminate the interior of the structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved components perform both functional and aesthetic purposes.

Pottery

Kuala Kangsar, Perak
, Malaysia

Under the Malay culture, pottery is not solely witnessed as a mere household utensil. It is perceived as a work of art, a paradigm of talent, embroidered with aesthetic, legacy, perseverance and religious devotion. The Malay earthen is usually unglazed, with the ornamental designs were carved when the pottery is semi-dried during its construction process.[145]

According to several studies,

foreign influence prior to the 19th century, a paradox considering the vast cultural contact between the Malays and the outside world.[146]

Among the renowned traditional Malay pottery includes Mambong of

Kuala Kangsar is honoured for gourd-formed jars. There are also several variants of Labu, including Labu Tela, Labu Kepala, Labu Gelugor Tela and Labu Gelugor Kepala.[145]

Other forms of Malay traditional pottery are: The Belanga, commonly in a wide rim and a round base, the pot usually mobilised to cook

Patani and Terengganu; The Bekas Bara, a small container, usually crafted for the use of incense; The Jambangan, a traditional Malay vase, usually for aesthetic purposes and Geluk, a small water storage.[147]

Cuisine

Itik Masak Lomak Cili Api, smoked duck with thick, creamy, savoury and spicy sauce, usually eaten with white rice.
Main article: Malay cuisine

Different Malay regions are all known for their unique or signature dishes—

Bangka Belitung for its siput gonggong and terang bulan; West Kalimantan and Sarawak for its bubur pedas and ayam pansuh; Brunei for their nasi katok and unique ambuyat dish; and Cape Malays of South Africa for its bobotie, boeber and koe'sister
.

The main characteristic in traditional Malay cuisine is undoubtedly the generous use of spices. The

lemongrass and galangal.[149]

Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, the staple food in many other East Asian cultures. Although there are various type of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses. Food is eaten delicately with the fingers of right hand, never with the left which is used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils.[150] Because most of Malay people are Muslims, Malay cuisine follows Islamic halal dietary law rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and lamb meat, and also includes poultry and fishes. Pork and any non-halal meats, also alcohol is prohibited and absent from Malay daily diet.

Nasi lemak, rice cooked in rich coconut milk probably is the most popular dish ubiquitous in Malay town and villages. Nasi lemak is considered as Malaysia's national dish.[151] While Nasi Minyak and Nasi Hujan Panas, rice broiled with ghee and spices is hailed as a ceremonial dish for special occasions, especially during the traditional Malay weddings.

Another example is

Eid ul-Fitr. Various meats and vegetables could be made into Gulai or Kari, a type of curry dish with variations of spices mixtures that clearly display Indian influence already adopted by Malay people since ancient times. Laksa, a hybrid of Malay and Peranakan Chinese cuisine is also a popular dish. Malay cuisine also adopted and received visible influence from some of their closest neighbours' cuisine traditions, such as rendang adopted from the Minangkabaus in Pagaruyung, and satay
from Java, however Malay people has developed their own distinctive taste and recipes.

Performing arts

Mak Yong (c. 19th century). In 2005, it received recognition as being among the masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity by UNESCO
.

The Malays have diverse kinds of music and dance which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from traditional Malay folk dances dramas like

Mak Yong to the Arab-influenced Zapin dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes in Dikir barat to the complicated moves in Joget Gamelan
.

Traditional Malay music is basically percussive. Various kinds of

gongs provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums of various sizes, ranging from the large rebana ubi used to punctuate important events to the small jingled-rebana (frame drum) used as an accompaniment to vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.[152]

cymbals.[153]

Indian influences are strong in a traditional

Wayang Kulit where stories from Hindu epics; Ramayana & Mahabharata form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of shadow puppet theatre that can be found in Malay Peninsula; Wayang Gedek, Wayang Purwa, Wayang Melayu and Wayang Siam.[154][155][156]
Nonetheless, the art and the storytelling of Wayang Purwa and Wayang Siam denote a regional influence in fused with the Javanese and Siamese respectively, while Wayang Melayu and Wayang Gedek narrated a more autochthonously Malay form and fashion.

Other well-known Malay performing arts are; Bangsawan theatre, Dondang Sayang love ballad and Mak Inang dance from Malacca Sultanate, Jikey and Mek Mulung theatre from Kedah, Asyik dance and Menora dance drama from Patani and Kelantan, Ulek mayang and Rodat dance from Terengganu, Boria theatre from Penang, Canggung dance from Perlis, Mukun narrative songs from Brunei and Sarawak,[157][158][159] Gending Sriwijaya from Palembang, Serampang Dua Belas dance from Serdang.[159] and Zapin Api firedance from Riau.

Traditional dress

Malay children wearing traditional dress during Eid al-Fitr
Main articles: Baju Melayu and Baju Kurung

The traditional Malay apparel and textile has been continuously morphed since the time of antiquity. Historically, the ancient Malays were chronicled to incorporate various natural materials as a vital source for fabrics, clothing and attire. The common era however, witnessing the early arrivals the merchants from east and west to the harbours of Malay Archipelago, together they bought new luxurious items, including fine cotton and silks. The garments subsequently become a source of high Malay fashion and acquired a cultural role as the binding identity in the archipelago, especially in the peninsula, Sumatra and the coastal areas of Borneo.[160]

In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are revered as symbols of beauty, power and status. Numerous accounts in Malay hikayats stressed the special place occupied by textiles.[161] The Malay handloom industry can be traced its origin since the 13th century when the eastern trade route flourished under Song dynasty. Mentions of locally made textiles as well as the predominance of weaving in the Malay Peninsula were made in various Chinese and Arab accounts.[162] Among well-known Malay textiles are Songket, Batik, Telepok, Limar, Tenun, Kelingkam, Cindai, Pelangi and Tekad.

Classical Malay dress varies between different regions, but the most profound traditional dress in modern-day are Baju Kurung (for women) and Baju Melayu (for men), which both recognised as the national dress for Malaysia and Brunei, and also worn by Malay communities in Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Myanmar and Thailand.

The word Baju Kurung, literary defined as "encase the body" of the wearer is tailored based on the Islamic principles of modesty, decency and humility. The practice is parallel to the

Judaeo-Christian religious doctrine, as flaunting the intimate body parts is considered as forbidden in Islam. The interpretation was then absorbed to the Malay way of dressing and cultural perspective, this can be strongly witnessed upon the rule of Mansur Shah of Malacca in the 15th century, the sultan prohibited his female Muslim subjects in the public from wearing only a sarong from the bust downwards. Throughout the ages, The Malay Baju Kurung went into several reincarnation before assuming its current form. Due to the vastness of various Malay kingdoms in the archipelago, local and distinct forms of the Baju Kurung design patterns can also be witnessed in the region, including Bengkulu, Kedah, Jambi, Johor-Riau, Pahang and Palembang.[160]

The corresponding mode of Baju Kurung for men is known as "Baju Melayu". The upper part of the garment was made with the geometrical design almost similar with Baju Kurung and commonly paired with woven cloth known as the sarong. The pattern of the sarong may possessed a symbol of the person's marital status or the rank in the classical Malay society.[160]

Other common classical Malay attire for men consists of a baju (shirt) or tekua (a type of a long sleeve shirt), baju rompi (vest), kancing (button), a small leg celana (trousers), a sarong worn around the waist, capal (sandal), and a tanjak or tengkolok (headgear); for the aristocrats, the baju sikap or baju layang (a type of coat) and pending (ornamental belt buckle) are also synonymous to be worn as a formal attire. It was also common for a pendekar (Malay warrior) to have a Kris tucked into the front fold of sarong.

In contrast to Baju Melayu which continued to be worn as ceremonial dress only, Baju Kurung is worn daily throughout the year by a majority of Malay women. Sighting of female civil servants, professional workers and students wearing Baju Kurung is common in Malaysia and Brunei.

Festivals and celebrations

Muar
, Johor, Malaysia.

The rise of

Aidiladha are hailed as the grand celebrations universally across the Malay community. The two holidays are instrumental to commentate two major events and philosophy in the Islamic teaching and beliefs. The former signifies the triumph as a Muslim after a month of fasting and patience in Ramadan, while the latter is to observe the sacrifice made by Ibrahim (Abraham) under the name of Allah
.

The Raya holidays usually commenced during the homecoming event known as Balik Kampung or Balik Raya which occurred a few days before the festival. During the Hari Raya, the Malays would celebrated by performing the Eid prayers, holding a grand feast and visiting friends, relatives and neighbours. A visit to the grave of the departed loved ones is also essential, as a sign of respect, love and honour.

Perak Royalty
as Tengku Puan Indera in 1925

Other major liturgical and religious ceremonies celebrated by the Malays include

Awal Muharram, the Islamic New Year; the latter three celebrations are usually observed by holding a special sunat prayers, religious lectures and Islamic discussions in the mosque
.

There are also a plethora of domestic regional cultural festivals and social events within different the Malay spheres. The coastal areas were historically known to observed the Mandi Safar or Puja Pantai ceremony, a purifying bath during the Islamic month of Safar, originally emulated from the ancient pre-Islamic Malay holy cleansing rituals; and Pesta Menuai, a harvest festival celebrated by the inland and agrarian Malay communities by traditional games, theatre, Joget and other repertoire of dance-play. However, both of the practice is gradually extinct owing from various social and economic revolution engineered in the Malay community in the 20th century. Additionally, many Malays are also known to participate in the imperial celebrations to honour the royal courts of their respective kingdoms.

The Islamic features also strongly embroidered the Malay celebrations in the individual level, a juxtaposition bonded to the spiritual rite of passage as a Muslim. The Malays would usually organised kenduri, a religious ceremonial banquet to celebrate or to seek blessing for an event. There are several philosophical variations of kenduri, raging from Doa Selamat (asking for divine favour and protection), Kesyukuran (for thanksgiving and gratitude), Melenggang Perut (ceremonial massage for a mother who is pregnant with her first child), Aqiqah and Cukur Jambul (newborn ceremony, for celebrating a new life), Bertindik (the first piercing ceremony for a female child), Khatam (a graduation ceremony, after a child's first full-reading of the Quran), Khatan (circumcision), Kahwin (wedding), Arwah or Tahlil (prayers for a deceased person), among few. The event is usually organised by the family and was traditionally aided by the community in a social gathering known as Rewang or Gotong-royong. During this ceremony, the whole family would be assisted by their neighbours and relatives, delegating various tasks raging from food preparations, venue management, logistic assembly and other technical control. Nevertheless, following the rise of urbanism in the contemporary Malay community, the practice of Rewang/Gotong-Royong is gradually superseded by hired-caterer services by the family.

Martial arts

A Silat Melayu performance on a stage
Main articles: Silat and Silat Melayu

Silat and its variants can be found throughout the Malay world: the Malay Peninsula (including Singapore), the Riau Islands, Sumatra and coastal areas of Borneo. Archaeological evidence reveals that, by the 6th century, formalised combat arts were being practised in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.[163] The earliest forms of Silat are believed to have been developed and used in the armed forces of the ancient Malay kingdoms of Langkasuka (2nd century)[164][165] and Srivijaya (7th century).

The influence of the Malay sultanates of Malacca,

Pencak Silat and other forms of Silat in Southeast Asia.[168][169]

Apart from Silat,

Funan Empire
(68 AD).

Metal working

Siam
) as a symbol of allegiance.

Upon the turn of the 17th century, gold, silver,

granulation techniques, in which the traditional methods can still be witnessed today. In the contemporary era, Malay gold jewels are mainly found in the form of anklets, bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants and earrings.[170][171]

For the Malay silverware, the works of silver are fairly known for its sophisticated and fine designs. It is usually crafted by repousse, filigree and niello techniques. The common traditional Malay items usually made of silver include pillow ends, belt buckles, matt corners, stoppers for water vessels, Keris sheaths and tobacco boxes. The Awan Larat (cloud patterns) and Kerawang (Vegetal motives) are among the popular designs for Malay decorative silver pillow ends and tobacco boxes.[170]

The usage of brassware transcends a plethora of classical Malay social classes, being used by the members of nobility and commoners alike. The popularity of brassware is heavily contributed due to its durability, quality and affordability to all. The brassware can be narrowed into two distinctions, yellow brass for functional items and white for

Tepak Sireh, a ceremonial tray for betel quid and for constructing certain musical instruments such as Gongs for the classical Malay Gamelan orchestra. Additionally, other prominent traditional Malay items made from metal includes flower vases, perfume sprinkles, serving trays, cooking pots, kettle and incense burners.[170][171]

Weaponry

See also: Taming Sari and Bedil (term)

The

Malacca in the 15th century, the evolution of the Malay Keris was perfected and possession of a Keris came to be regarded as in integral part of Malay culture, becoming a philosophical symbol, juxtapositioned in prestige, craftsmanship, masculinity and honour.[173][174][175]

During the classical era, a Malay man was not seen without a Keris outside of his house. The absence of a Keris on a man was frowned upon, perceived as if he were parading naked to the public. Traditionally, a man of Malay extraction would own three types of Keris: Keris Pusaka (the Dynasty Keris, inherited from one generation to another), Keris Pangkat (the Status Keris, awarded in right of his position in Malay society) and Keris Perjuangan Dirinya (the Struggle Keris, literally defined as his personal Keris). There are many strict rules, regulations and taboos to be adhered to in owning a Keris.[175] The blade of a Kris is usually coated with poisonous arsenic, thus crafting an excruciatingly lethal blade for its prey.[174] Traditionally, each Keris is also regarded as possessing a spirit, known as semangat. Special rituals were to be conducted to nurture, preserve and guard the "soul" of the weapon.[175] The spiritual approach is usually held every Malam Jumaat (Thursday night), with the blade is being purified with lime and smoked with incense, dedicated prayers and devoted mantras would be also recited upon to complement the mystic ritual.[176]

  • A Malay Keris, with its sheath on the left. This particular dagger was historically belonged to a Malay aristocrat from Sumatra.
    A Malay Keris, with its sheath on the left. This particular dagger was historically belonged to a Malay aristocrat from Sumatra.
  • The trigger mechanism of an Istinggar, a classical Malay matchlock gun as displayed in Muzium Warisan Melayu (Malay Heritage Museum), Serdang, Selangor.
    The trigger mechanism of an Istinggar, a classical Malay matchlock gun as displayed in Muzium Warisan Melayu (Malay Heritage Museum), Serdang, Selangor.
  • A Malay soldier, 1511–1613.
    A Malay soldier, 1511–1613.
  • A Malay captain and his soldiers, 1640–1649.
    A Malay captain and his soldiers, 1640–1649.
  • Traditional Malay weapons.
    Traditional Malay weapons.

The Malays and Javanese are abided by contrasting philosophical

values pertaining to Keris-wearing. Traditionally, a Malay would embedded his Keris from the front, an honour that the weapon is more paramount compared to the wearer and a constant reminder that one is always equipped to combat the nemesis. The Javanese however, adhered to the principle that he should be more cautious and the Keris may solely be exercised during the time of need, thus cladding their Keris from behind. The Javanese also believed that by carrying their weapon that position, it would confuse the enemy.[175]

Paradoxically, both groups shared a similar ideology addressing the hilt of the Keris. If the hilt faced up front, it serves as a testament that the man is prepared for a fight. Nevertheless, if the hilt is turned behind, it is an oath that the person is embracing for a reconciliation.[175]

There are also a plethora of other forms of weaponry in the Malay arsenal, all were nevertheless equally revered in a correlating manner as the Keris. The Malays would classified the traditional weapons under 7 different structures: Tuju ("Direct", the large and heavy artillery, including the Malay

armed conflict
.

Traditional games

See also: Galah panjang
A Wau-maker's workshop in Kelantan, Malaysia. This peculiar type of kite can be found in the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula.

Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate.

kite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in the Malay Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.[178][179][180]

Southeast Asian Games
.

Other popular game is Gasing spinning which usually played after the harvest season. A great skill of craftsmanship is required to produce the most competitive Gasing (top), some of which spin for two hours at a time.[183]

Possibly the most popular Malay games is the Wau (a unique kind of kite from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula) or kite flying. Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for craftsmanship (Wau are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames), sound (all Malay kites are designed to create a specific sound as they are buffeted about in the wind) and altitude.[183]

The Malays also have a variant of

Congkak. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin since Ancient Egypt
. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays.[184]

Names and titles

Main articles:
Malay names and Malay styles and titles

Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. Naming has undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different influences that the Malays been subjected to over the ages. Although some Malay names still retain parts of their indigenous

Arabic names
as marks of their religion.

Malay names are

Mohd Zaquan Adha Abdul Radzak
, where 'Mohd Zaquan Adha' is his triple given name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name.

In addition to naming system, the

Dato' Seri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak, where 'Dato' Seri' is a Malay title of honour, 'Mohd Najib' is his personal name, 'bin' is derived from an Arabic word Ibnu meaning "son of" if in case of daughter it is replaced with binti, an Arabic word "bintun" meaning "daughter of", introduces his father's titles and names, 'Tun' is a higher honour, 'Haji' denotes his father's Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca
, and 'Abdul Razak' is his father's personal name. The more extremely complex Malay names however, belong to the Malay royalty. The reigning
Sultan of Brunei officially known as Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar 'Ali Saifuddien Sa'adul Khairi Waddien
.

Sub-ethnic groups

See also:
Indonesian Malays, Thai Malays, and Filipinos of Malay descent
The realm of Malays is depicted in green and other related sub-ethnic groups are rendered in darker or lighter green.

Although only constituting 3.4% of the total population, ethnic Malays are one of the most widely distributed ethnicities in Indonesia. As shown on the map, outside the

Brunei Darussalam, coastal Sarawak and continues down to Kalimantan.[185]

Ethnic group Historical realms Regions with significant population
Bangka Malays
Belitung Malays
Bangkok Malays[186][187]
  • Ayutthaya Province
Bengkulu Malays
Berau Malays
  • Berau Sultanate (1377–1830)
  • Gunung Tabur Sultanate (1810–1945)
  • Sambaliung Sultanate (1810–1945)
Bruneian Malays[188][189][190][191]
  • Bruneian Empire
    (7th–15th century)
  • Brunei Sultanate
    (1363–present)
Buginese Malays
Buginese
descent
Burmese Malays
Jambi Malays (Eastern Sumatran Malays)
Javanese Malays[192][193]
Assimilated Malay group of Javanese descent
Johorean Malays[189][190][191]
Kedahan Malays[189][190][191][195]
Kelantanese Malays[189][190][191]
  • Red Earth Kingdom
    (1st −6th century)
  • Kelantan Sultanate (1267–present)
  • Jembal Sultanate (1638–1720)
Loloan Malays
  • Jembrana Regency
Malaccan Malays[189][190][191]
Minangkabau Malays[192][193]
Assimilated Malay group of Minangkabau descent
Northeast Sumatran Malays
Pahang Malays[189][190][191]
Palembang Malays
Pattani Malays[189][190][191]
  • Negara Sri Dharmaraja Kingdom (1st Millennium–15th century)
  • Langkasuka (2nd–14th century)
  • Pattani Sultanate
    (1516–1902)
  • Singgora Sultanate
    (1603–1689)
  • Reman Kingdom
    (1785–1902)
  • Legeh Kingdom (1755–1902)[197]
  • Nong Chik Kingdom (1809–1902)[197]
  • Jalur Kingdom (1817–1902)[197]
  • Teluban Kingdom (1817–1902)[197]
  • Jering Kingdom (1817–1902)[197]
Perakian Malays[189][190][191]
Riau Malays
  • Kuntu Kampar Sultanate (1234–1933)
  • Indragiri Sultanate (1298–1945)
  • Rokan Sultanate (1569–1940)
  • Pelalawan Sultanate (1791–1946)
  • Riau-Lingga Sultanate (1824–1911)
Sarawakian Malays[198][199]
  • Santubong Kingdom (7th century)
  • Samarahan Kingdom (13th century)
  • Saribas Kingdom (15th century)
  • Banting Kingdom (16th century)
  • Sarawak Sultanate
    (1598–1641)
Selangorean Malays
Singaporean Malays
Tamiang Malays
  • Bukit Karang Kingdom (1023–1330)
  • Benua Tamiang Sultanate (1330–1528)
Terengganuan Malays[189][190][191]
West Kalimantan Malays
  • Matam Sultanate (1590–1948)
  • Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1950)
  • Mempawah Sultanate (1740–1950)
  • Sanggau Sultanate (1310–1960)
  • Sintang Sultanate (1365–1950)
  • Tanjungpura Kingdom (880–1590)
Sambas (Malay)

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Malay people.

Notes

  1. ^ The definition of the Malay ethnicity can be different in every country, especially between those of Malaysia and Singapore, which are nearly the same, and that of Indonesia.
  2. ^ The Malaysian census data does not distinguish non-Malay Indonesian ethnic groups (such as the Javanese) as separate ethnicities but include them among the "Malays".
  3. ^ This number only provides the ethnic group population that lies under the term "Malay" (Melayu) according to the Indonesian government version, namely Melayu Asahan, Melayu Deli, Melayu Riau, Langkat/ Melayu Langkat, Melayu Banyu Asin, Asahan, Melayu, Melayu Lahat, and Melayu Semendo in some part of Sumatra
  4. ^ The Singaporean census data does not distinguish non-Malay Indonesian ethnic groups as separate ethnicities but include them among the "Malays", even though, for instance, those of Javanese descent make up around 60% of the Singaporean "Malay" population.

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Bibliography

Further reading

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