Malayalam literature
Indian literature |
---|
Ancient |
Early Medieval |
Medieval to early Modern |
Malayalam, the lingua franca of the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puduchery, is one of the six classical languages of India.[1] Malayalam literature comprises those literary texts written in Malayalam, a South-Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala. The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785.[2][3] Malayalam literature has been presented with 6 Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.[4][5]
The
Designated a "
The prose literature, criticism, and
Evolution of Malayalam
The western dialect of
Some scholars however believe that both Tamil and Malayalam developed during the prehistoric period from a common ancestor, 'Proto-Tamil-Malayalam', and that the notion of Malayalam being a 'daughter' of Tamil is misplaced.[40] This is based on the fact that Malayalam and several Dravidian languages on the western coast have common archaic features which are not found even in the oldest historical forms of literary Tamil. However they share few striking innovations with Middle Tamil thus making independent descent impossible.[41]
The
The
The Middle Malayalam was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (Aadhunika Malayalam) by the 15th century CE.[36] The poem Krishnagatha written by Cherusseri Namboothiri, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446 – 1475) of Kolathunadu, is written in modern Malayalam.[14] The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam.[14] During the 16th century CE, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan from the Kingdom of Tanur and Poonthanam Nambudiri from the Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu written by Ezhuthachan and Jnanappana written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.[14]
It is
Word | Original word | Language of origin | Meaning |
---|---|---|---|
കത്ത് (Kattŭ) | Khaṭ | Arabic | letter |
ജനാല or ജനൽ (Jaṉāla or Jaṉal) | Janela | Portuguese | window |
കക്കൂസ് (Kakkūsŭ) | Kakhuis | Early Modern Dutch | toilet |
Old Malayalam
Folk Songs
Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam.
Ramacharitham
Ramacharitham is a collection of poems written at the end of the preliminary stage. It is the oldest Malayalam book available, with a possible exception of Thirunizhalmala. The collection has 1,814 poems in it. Ramacharitham mainly consists of stories from the Yuddha Kanda of the Ramayana. It was written by a poet with the pen name Cheeramakavi who, according to poet Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer, was Sree Veerarama Varman, a king of southern Kerala from AD 1195 to 1208.[55] However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of new discoveries.[56] Other experts, like Chirakkal T Balakrishnan Nair, Dr. K.M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P.V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in Kasaragod district in North Malabar region.[56] They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from Nileshwaram in North Malabar.[57] The influence of Ramacharitam is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala.[56] The words used in Ramacharitam such as Nade (Mumbe), Innum (Iniyum), Ninna (Ninne), Chaaduka (Eriyuka) are special features of the dialect spoken in North Malabar (Kasaragod-Kannur region).[56] Furthermore, the Thiruvananthapuram mentioned in Ramacharitham is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala.[56] But it is Ananthapura Lake Temple of Kumbla in the northernmost Kasaragod district of Kerala.[56] The word Thiru is used just by the meaning Honoured.[56] Today it is widely accepted that Ramacharitham was written somewhere in North Malabar (most likely near Kasaragod).[56]. Ramacharitham is considered a book written during the formative years of Malayalam. According to Rev. Dr. Hermann Gundert, who compiled the first dictionary of the Malayalam language, Ramacharitham shows the ancient style of the Malayalam language.[58]
Middle Malayalam
Manipravalam
While the Pattu school flourished among certain sections of the society, the literature of the elite was composed in the curious mixture of
The earliest of these works in the Manipravalam school is Vaisika Tantram written in the 13th century. It contains about 200 quatrains in Sanskrit metres and is in the form of professional advice given to a prostitute or courtesan by her mother. Each quatrain is composed with care and due weight is given to the rules of rhetoric. Several quatrains of this type are quoted in Lilathilakam by way of illustration for the several rules of grammar and rhetoric.
The most representative of the early Manipravalam works are the tales of courtesans (
The next work to be mentioned is Ramakathapattu, as it is popularly known, though the author calls it Ramayanakavyam. The author is Ayyappilli Asan who lived sometime about 1400 CE at Auvatutura near Kovalam and whom P. K. Narayana Pillai, who discovered the full text of the book in 1965, calls "the Homer of Malayalam." Ramakathapattu contains 3163 songs in 279 Vrittas or parts.[61]
Niranam poets
While the Manipravala poetry flourished as a diversion from the mainstream, the tradition set up by Cheeraman of Ramacharitamand the more enlightened among the anonymous folk poets was resumed and replenished by three writers commonly referred to as
Later Champus and Krishnagatha
The 15th century CE saw two paralleled movements in Malayalam literature: one spearheaded by the Manipravalam works, especially the and Patakam. Mahishamangalam (or Mazhamangalam) Narayanan Nambudiri who lived in the 16th century is the author of some of the best Champus of all time. The most widely known of these is Naishadham followed by Rajaratnavaliyam and Kodia Viraham. Chandrotsavam, whose authorship is unknown, is a long narrative poem written in Manipravalam.
The elitist Manipravala Champu school disappeared by the end of the 16th century. The average readers without much grounding in Sanskrit had their favourite poems and poets in the so-called Pattu school. With the writing of Krishnagatha by Cherusseri, the validity of the use of spoken Malayalam for literary purposes received its ultimate justification. Unlike the language of Ramacharitam and the works of the Niranam poets, the language of Krishnagatha marks the culmination of a stage of evolution. There is some dispute about the author's name and his identity. Some scholars are of opinion that he was the same as the Punam Nambudiri of the Champus. It is widely believed that Cherusseri lived in the 15th century CE and was the court poet of Udayavarma of Kolathunadu.
Arabi Malayalam
The
Evolution of Modern Malayalam
The Middle Malayalam (Madhyakaala Malayalam) was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (Aadhunika Malayalam) by the 15th century CE.[36] The poem Krishnagatha written by Cherusseri Namboothiri, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446 – 1475) of Kolathunadu, is written in modern Malayalam.[14] The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam.[14] During the 16th century CE, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan from the Kingdom of Tanur and Poonthanam Nambudiri from the Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu written by Ezhuthachan and Jnanappana written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.[14]
It is Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan who is also credited with the development of
P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work Keralolpathi, which describes the Parashurama legend and the departure of the final Cheraman Perumal king to Mecca, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan.[73] The currently adopted Malayalam script, adopted by Ezhuthachan can be used to write any other language of India as it contain letters to denote both of the Voiced retroflex approximant (/ɻ/) (which is unique to Dravidian languages in India) and the letters unique to Sanskrit (those are not there in the Tamil script).
Modern Malayalam
Bhakti era
Malayalam literature passed through a tremendous process of development in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Performance arts
The 16th century also saw the writing of some dramatic works in Manipravalam and pure Malayalam, Bharatavakyam, often described as a choral narration, is a work in Manipravalam which was used for stage performance. The main development in the cultural field in Kerala in the 17th century was the growth of a new form of visual art called Kathakali, which brought into being a new genre of poetry called Attakkatha consisting of the libretto used for a Kathakali performance. The origins of aattakatha literature dates back to the 12th century and it emerged as a literary genre in the 17th century. The earliest of the aattakathas is believed to be a cycle of eight Ramayana stories (collectively known as Ramanattam), composed by Kottarakkara Tampuran and about whose date there is an ongoing controversy. Next in importance are the works of Kottayathu Tampuran whose period is about the middle of the seventeenth century. Since the four aattakathas he wrote Bakavadham, Kalyanasaugandhikam, Kirmeeravadham and Kalakeyavadham punctiliously conform to the strict rules of Kathakali, they are particularly favoured by orthodox artistes and their patrons. Another poet of this category is Irayimman Thampi (1783–1863). Unnayi Variyar's Nalacharitham Aattakatha is one of the most famous works in this genre. Margamkali was the form of ritual and entertainment among the Syrian Christians corresponding to the Sanghakali of the Brahmins. Margamkalippattu is the song for this performance depicting the story of Thomas the Apostle. This was one of the numerous pieces of Christian literature that must have gained currency in the 16th and 17th centuries.[14]
In the court of
Prose literature
There was a great lull in the field of literary creation in Malayalam for nearly a century after the death of Kunchan Nambiar. There was however a consistent and steady development of prose at this time. The evolution of prose literature in the early centuries was a very slow process. In the wake of Bhashakautaliyam several translations began to appear in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The prose of Attaprakarams was meant to aid the Chakiyars in learning the art of
Venmani school
The third quarter of the nineteenth century bore witness to the rise of a new school of poets devoted to the observation of life around them and the use of pure Malayalam (Pachcha Malayalam). The major poets of the Venmani school were Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad (1817–1891), Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad (1844–1893), Poonthottam Achhan Nambudiri (1821–1865), Poonthottam Mahan Nambudiri (1857–1896) and the members of the Kodungallur Kovilakam (Royal Family) such as Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran. The style of these poets became quite popular for a while and influenced even others who were not members of the group like Velutheri Kesavan Vaidyar (1839–1897) and Perunlli Krishnan Vaidyan (1863–1894). The Venmani school pioneered a style of poetry that was associated with common day themes, and the use of pure Malayalam rather than Sanskrit. The poetry was therefore easily understood by the common man. The works were known for its humour, wit, and lyrical metre.[14]
Modern prose literature
Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards
In the wake of Kerala Varma's translation of Abhijñānaśākuntalam, several attempts were made to translate numerous plays from Sanskrit and English into Malayalam. These plays were seldom acted. The stage conditions of those days were crude and unfit to project a performance. As if irritated by this imitation plays of low quality, P. Rama Kurup wrote Chakki Chankaram (1893). Kerala Varma's nephew A. R. Raja Raja Varma went a step further than his uncle in the promotion of a synthesis between the different trends current in the literature of his time. A professor in the His Highness Maharaja's University College, Thiruvananthapuram, he had to modernise the process of teaching Malayalam language and literature; this made him write books on grammar and rhetoric (which earned him the title of Kerala Panini) and eventually prepare the ground for an enlightened renaissance in Malayalam poetry and literary criticism. A close associate of both Kerala Varma and Raja Raja Varma, K. C. Kesava Pillai wrote Kesaviyam (a mahakavya) and a number of attakkathas. Azhakathu Padmanabha Kurup (1869–1932: author of Ramachandravilasam), Pandalam Kerala Varma (1879–1919: author of Rukmangatha Charitam), Kattakkayam Cherian Mappila (1859 – 1937: author of Sri Yesu Vijayam), Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer (1877–1949 : author of Umakeralam) and Vallathol Narayana Menon (1879–1958: author of Chitrayogam), all paid their obeisance to this neoclassicist trend.[14]
The developments in prose at this time were very significant,
The first novel conceived and published in Malayalam was
In the second half of the 20th century,
Early prose literature
List of early prose literature in the 19th century.[79]
Allegories
Title | Author | Year | Make | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sanchariyude Prayanam (സഞ്ചാരിയുടെ പ്രയാണം – Sancāriyuṭe Pṟayāṇaṁ) |
Rev. C. Muller Rev. P. Chandran |
1846 | Translation | More
Translation of The Pilgrim's Progress (English, 1674) by John Bunyan |
Paradeshi Mokshayathra (പരദേശി മോക്ഷയാത്ര – Paradēśi Mōkṣayātṟa) |
Rev. K. Koshy Rev. Joseph Peet |
1844 | Translation | More
Translation of The Pilgrim's Progress (English, 1677) by John Bunyan First repeated translation of an English literature to Malayalam |
Thirupporattam (തിരുപ്പോരാട്ടം – Tiruppōrāṭṭaṁ) |
Archdeacon. K. Koshy | 1868 | Translation | More
Translation of The Holy War (English, 1682) by John Bunyan |
Plays
Writers like Edasseri Govindan Nair, N. N. Pillai, Cherukad, Thoppil Bhasi, Kavalam Narayana Panicker have contributed much to Malayalam drama.[33]
Title | Author | Year | Make | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bashashankunthalam (ഭാഷാശാകുന്തളം – Bhaṣāśākuntaḷaṁ) |
Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma | 1850–1860 | Translation | More
Translation of Kalidasa The first prose translation to Malayalam from Sanskrit literature |
Almarattam (ആൾമാറാട്ടം – Āḷmāṟāṭṭaṁ) |
Kalloor Umman Philipose | 1866 | Translation | More
Translation of The Comedy of Errors (1594–1595) by William Shakespeare |
Kamakshee Charitham (കാമാക്ഷീചരിതം – Kāmākṣīcaritaṁ) |
K. Chidambara Wadhyar | 1880–1885 | Translation | More
Translation of Tales from Shakespeare: As You Like It by Mary Lamb, (Children's Story Adaptation-English,1807) As You Like It (1599–1600) by William Shakespeare |
Varshakala Katha (വൎഷകാലകഥ – Varṣakāla Katha) |
K. Chidambara Wadhyar | 1880–1885 | Translation | More
Translation of Tales from Shakespeare: The Winter's Tale by Mary Lamb, (Children's Story Adaptation-English,1807) The Winter's Tale (1623) by William Shakespeare |
Stories
Title | Author | Year | Make | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Oru Kuttiyude Maranam (ഒരു കുട്ടിയുടെ മരണം – Oru Kuṭṭiyuṭe Maraṇaṁ) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1847 | Original | More
Published in the monthly periodical Rajyasamacharam December edition |
Vishathinu Marunnu (വിഷത്തിന് മരുന്ന് – Viṣattinŭ Marunnŭ) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1848 | Original | More
Published in the monthly periodical Rajyasamacharam February edition |
Anayum Thunnanum (ആനയും തുന്നനും – Āṉayuṁ Tunnaṉuṁ) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1849 | Original | More
Published in the monthly periodical Jnananikshepam August edition |
Meenakethanan or Meenakethana Charitham (മീനകേതനൻ or മീനകേതനചരിതം – Mīṉakētaṉan or Mīṉakētaṉacaritaṁ ) |
Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma | 1850–1860 | Inspiration | More
Inspired from 'The Story of the Prince Kamar-Ez-Zeman and the Princess Budoor', The Thousand And One Nights Vol II by Edward William Lane (English, 1839) which is a translation of Kitab Alf Laylah Wa-Laylah (Arabic, 1100–1200) |
Jathibetham (ജാതിഭേദം – Jātibēdaṁ) |
Archdeacon. K. Koshy | 1860 | Original | More
Published in the monthly periodical Jnananikshepam August, September, November editions |
Aayalkarane Konnavante Katha (അയൽക്കാരനെ കൊന്നവന്റെ കഥ – Ayalkārane Konnavanṯe Katha) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1873 | Original | More |
Kallan (കല്ലൻ – Kallan) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1881 | Adaptation | More
Published in the periodical Vidyavilasini |
Pullelikunchu (പുല്ലേലിക്കുഞ്ചു – Pullēlikkuñcu) |
Archdeacon. K. Koshy | 1882 | Original | More
Sequel to ജാതിഭേദം (1860), First sequel in Malayalam prose literature Divided into three parts: Part One is a prequel ജാതിഭേദം (1860). Part Two has a plot with same characters of the prequel and some new characters in a new situation. Part Three is presented as a religious tract following incidents of Part Two. |
Vasanavikrithi (വാസനാവികൃതി – Vāsanāvikr̥ti) |
Vengayil Kunjiraman Nayanar | 1891 | Original | More
Regarded as the first short-story of Malayalam literature |
Novels
Title | Author | Year | Make | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fulmoni Ennum Koruna Ennum Peraya Randu Sthreekalude Katha (ഫുൽമോനി എന്നും കോരുണ എന്നും പേരായ രണ്ടു സ്ത്രീകളുടെ കഥ – Phulmōni ennuṁ kōruṇa ennuṁ pērāya ranṭu strīkaḷuṭe katha) |
Rev. Joseph Peet | 1858 | Translation | More
First novel printed and released in Malayalam First novel translated to Malayalam which was originally conceived in an Indian language Translation of The History of Phulmani and Karuna (English,1853) by Mrs. (Hana Catherine) Mullens which is a translation of ফুলমনি ও করুণার বিবরণ [Fulmoni O Korunar Biboron] (Bengali ,1852) by Mrs. (Hana Catherine) Mullens |
Ghathakawadham (ഘാതകവധം – Ghātakavadhaṁ)[80] |
Rev. Richard Collins[81] | 1877 | Translation | More
First novel printed and published in Malayalam with a story based in Kerala and around Malayalees, First novel translated to Malayalam which was originally conceived in English Translation of The Slayer Slain (English,1864–1866) by Mrs. (Frances) Richard Collins & Rev. Richard Collins |
Pathminiyum Karunayum (പത്മിനിയും കരുണയും – Patmiṉiyuṁ karuṇayuṁ) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1884 | Translation | More
First repeated translation of a novel to Malayalam Translation of The History of Phulmani and Karuna (English,1853) by Mrs. (Hana Catherine) Mullens which is a translation of ফুলমনি ও করুণার বিবরণ [Fulmoni O Korunar Biboron] (Bengali ,1852) by Mrs. (Hana Catherine) |
Kundalatha (കുന്ദലത – Kundalata) |
Appu Nedungadi | 1887 | Original | More
First novel conceived and published in Malayalam, first novel by a Malayalee Keralite, First novel from Malabar First Malayalam novel to have a story outside Kerala and without Malayali characters |
Indulekha (ഇന്ദുലേഖ – Indulēkha) |
O. Chandumenon
|
1889 | Original | More
First Malayali characters and a story based in Malabar, Kerala, |
Indumathee Swayamvaram (ഇന്ദുമതീസ്വയംവരം – Indumatīsvayaṁvaraṁ) |
Padinjare Kovilakathu Ammaman Raja | 1890 | Original | More |
Meenakshi (മീനാക്ഷി – Mīṉākṣi) |
C. Chathu Nair | 1890 | Original | More |
Marthandavarma (മാർത്താണ്ഡവർമ്മ – Māṟttāṇḍavaṟmma) |
C. V. Raman Pillai | 1891 | Original | More
First Historical novel in Malayalam, Kerala and South India, First novel from Travancore First Malayalam novel to be a part of a trilogy, First Malayalam novel to have a masculine title |
Saraswatheevijayam (സരസ്വതീവിജയം – Sarasvatīvijayaṁ)[80] |
Potheri Kunjanbu | 1892 | Original | More |
Parishkarapathi (പരിഷ്ക്കാരപ്പാതി – Pariṣkārappāti) |
Kochuthomman Appothikari | 1892 | Original | More |
Parangodee Parinayam (പറങ്ങോടീപരിണയം – Paṟaṅṅōṭīpariṇayaṁ)[82] |
Kizhakepattu Raman Menon | 1892 | Original | More
First satirical novel in Malayalam |
Sarada (ശാരദ – Śārada) |
O. Chandumenon
|
1892 | Original | More
First novel foretold to have sequels in a trilogy |
Lakshmeekeshavam (ലക്ഷ്മീകേശവം – Lakṣmīkēśavaṁ) |
Komattil Padu Menon | 1892 | Original | More |
Naluperiloruthan (നാലുപേരിലൊരുത്തൻ – Nālupēriloruttan) |
C. Anthapayi | 1893 | Original | More |
Chandrahasan (ചന്ദ്രഹാസൻ – Candrahāsan) |
P. Krishnan Menon T. K. Krishnan Menon C. Govindan Eledam |
1893 | Translation | More |
Akbar (അക്ബർ – Akbaṟ) |
Kerala Varma Valiya Koi Thampuran | 1894 | Translation | More
First Historical novel translated to Malayalam Translation of Akbar (English,1879) by M. M which is a translation of Akbar (Dutch ,1872) by Dr. P.A.S van Limburg Brouwer |
Kalyani (കല്യാണി – Kalyāṇi) |
<Anonymous Writer> | 1896 | Original | More
Published in Vidyāvinodini periodical |
Sukumari (സുകുമാരി – Sukumāri) |
Joseph Mooliyil | 1897 | Original | More |
Saguna (സഗുണ – Saguṇa) |
Joseph Mooliyil | 1898–1899 | Translation | More
Translation of Saguna (English, 1896) by Kirubai Sathyanathan Ammal |
Kamala (കമല – Kamala) |
C. Krishnan Nair | 1899 | Translation | More
Translation of Kamala (English, 1896) by Kirubai Sathyanathan Ammal |
Apologues
Title | Author | Year | Make | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rasselas (റാസലസ് – Ṟāsalas) |
Pilo Paul[83] | 1895 | Translation | More
Translation of Rasselas or The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (English, 1759) by Samuel Johnson |
Nandipa Deepika (നന്ദിപദീപിക – Nandipadīpika) |
Kunji Kelu Nair | 1895 | Translation | More
Translation of Rasselas or The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (English, 1759) by Samuel Johnson |
Rasalelika (രസലേലിക – Rasalēlika) |
Thatha Kanaran | 1898 | Translation | More
Translation of Rasselas or The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (English, 1759) by Samuel Johnson |
See also
- Indian literature
- List of Malayalam poets
- List of fiction writers in Malayalam
- Malayalam Literary Awards
- Arabi Malayalam
- Bible translations into Malayalam
- Malayalam (Unicode block)
- Malayalam Braille
- Women in Malayalam literature
References
- ^ "'Classical' status for Malayalam". The Hindu. Thiruvananthapuram, India. 24 May 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
- ISBN 978-81-264-2157-2.
- ^ "August 23, 2010 Archives". Archived from the original on 27 April 2013.
- ^ Naha, Abdul Latheef (24 September 2020). "Jnanpith given to Akkitham". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ ANI (29 November 2019). "Celebrated Malayalam poet Akkitham wins 2019 Jnanpith Award". Business Standard. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ a b Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018. p. 450. ASIN 8182676444.
- ^ "Kollam Era" (PDF). Indian Journal History of Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ a b Broughton Richmond (1956), Time measurement and calendar construction, p. 218
- ^ a b R. Leela Devi (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p. 408.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
- ^ "Malayalam language". Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ "'Classical' status for Malayalam". The Hindu. Thiruvananthapuram, India. 24 May 2013. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker (2006). A Short History of Malayalam Literature. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
- ^ Arun Narayanan (25 October 2018). "The Charms of Poonthanam Illam". The Hindu.
- ^ Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia
- ^ Binoy, Rasmi (27 September 2018). "The river sutra". The Hindu. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
- ^ "New university centre for Arabi Malayalam". Deccan Chronicle. 15 October 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ^ "kilippattu - musical genre". Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ a b "Kumaran Asan - Kumaran Asan Poems - Poem Hunter". www.poemhunter.com. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ a b "Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer - Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer Poems - Poem Hunter". www.poemhunter.com. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ a b "Vallathol Narayana Menon - Vallathol Narayana Menon Poems - Poem Hunter". www.poemhunter.com. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ a b "South Asian arts". Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-8177552720. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Accessions List, South Asia. E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi. 1994. p. 21. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Indian Writing Today. Nirmala Sadanand Publishers. 1967. p. 21. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0836424232. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Malayalam Literary Survey. Kerala Sahitya Akademi. 1993. p. 19. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-8126018833. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-8126900930. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-1906165017. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ Lyall, Sarah (15 October 1997). "Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018. p. 454. ASIN 8182676444.
- ISBN 9788188765072.
- ISBN 9783447059374.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i കേരള ചരിത്രം, എ. ശ്രീധരമേനോൻ
- ^ "Dravidian languages – History, Grammar, Map, & Facts". Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
- ^ Karashima 2014, p. 6: Other sources date this split to the 7th and 8th centuries.
- ^ Gopinathan Nair, B. (2009). "Malayalam". In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. p. 682.
"[...] Malayalam emerged from Proto-Tamil–Malayalam; divergence occurred over a period of four or five centuries, from the 8th century onward".
- ISBN 978-0-415-02242-2.
- ^ A. Govindankutty (1972) – From proto-Tamil-Malayalam to West Coast dialects. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 14 No. (1/2), pp. 52–60
- ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0
- ^ ISBN 9788188765072.
- ^ Ayyar, L. V. Ramaswami (1936). The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology (1st ed.). Trichur: Rama Varma Research Institute. p. 3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
- ^ a b Menon. T. Madhava. "A Handbook of Kerala, Volume 2", International School of Dravidian Linguistics, 2002. pp. 491-493.
- ^ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. "Malayalam language". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ a b Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. "Encyclopædia Britannica".
- ^ "Kollam Era" (PDF). Indian Journal History of Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- S2CID 166060066.
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Kerala: Kerala Historical Society. p. 18.
- ISBN 9788120606036– via Google Books.
- ^ Kerala (India), Dept. of Public Relations (2003), District Handbooks of Kerala: Pathanamthitta (Volume 7 of District Handbooks of Kerala, Kerala (India). Dept. of Public Relations
- ^ a b c Dr. K. Ayyappa Paniker (1977). A Short History of Malayalam Literature.
- ^ S. Parameshwara Aiyer, Ulloor (1990), Kerala Sahithya Chrithram (History of literature of Kerala), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala: University of Kerala
- ^ a b c d e f g h http://sdeuoc.ac.in/sites/default/files/sde_videos/SLM-MA-Mal-Aadyakala%20Malayala%20kavitha%20%281%29.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ Leelavathi, Dr. M., Malayala Kavitha Sahithya Chrithram (History of Malayalam poetry)
- ^ Gundert, Rev. Dr. Hermann (1865), Malayalabhasha Vyakaranam (Grammar of Malayalam language
- ^ Ke Rāmacandr̲an Nāyar (1971). Early Manipravalam: a study. Anjali. Foreign Language Study. pp.78
- ISBN 978-81-206-0603-6.
- ^ Amaresh Datta. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 50.
- ISSN 2590-3691.
- hdl:10603/213506.
- ISSN 2590-3691.
- ^ "Mappila songs cultural fountains of a bygone age, says MT". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 31 March 2007. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
- ^ Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007
- hdl:10603/49524.
- ^ Panakkal, Abbas (2016). Islam in Malabar (1460-1600) : a socio-cultural study /. Kulliyyah Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia.
- ^ Kallen, hussain Randathani. "Trade and Culture: Indian Ocean Interaction on the Coast of Malabar in Medieval Period". Academia.edu.
- ^ Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987. pp. 458-56.
- ^ Malayalam Resource Centre
- ^ National Virtual Translation Center - Arabic script for malayalam
- ^ History of Travancore by Shungunny Menon, page 28
- ^ K. M. Tharakan (1990). A Brief Survey of Malayalam Literature: History of Literature. National Books. p. 72.
The pioneers of the short-story in Malayalam were Vengayil Kunju Raman Nayanar, Oduvil Kunjukrishna Menon, C. S. Gopala Panikkar, Ambadi Narayana Poduval, Chakulath Kunjirama Menon (M. R. K. C.) and Murkoth Kumaran.
- ^ Staff Reporter (5 October 2010). "Seminar in memory of Appu Nedungadi". The Hindu. Retrieved 15 September 2017 – via www.thehindu.com.
- ^ K. Kunhikrishnan. "The Hindu : Voice of rebellion". www.hindu.com. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
- ^ "The DHS Program - India: Standard DHS, 2015-16". dhsprogram.com.
- ^ "National Family Health Survey". rchiips.org.
- ^ Irumbayam, Dr. George (January 1997) [1984]. Jacob, Jolly (ed.). മലയാള നോവൽ പത്തൊമ്പതാം നൂറ്റാണ്ടിൽ (malayāḷa nōval pattonpatāṁ nūṯāṇṭil) [The Malayalam Novel in the Nineteenth Century] (Study) (in Malayalam) (First D.C.P. ed.). Thiruvananthapuram: Cultural Publication Section, Government of Kerala.
- ^ a b Ancy Bay 2015. Translating Modernity: Conversion and Caste in Early South Indian Novel – The Slayer Slain and Saraswathi Vijayam. Calicut: Olive Publishers.
- ^ Journal of Kerala Studies , Volume 9. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India: Kerala University. 1982. p. 159.
- ISBN 978-81-250-5722-2
- ^ George, Dr. K. M. (1998) [1972]. Western Influence on Malayalam Language and Literature (Study). New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 99.
Further reading
- English
- T. K. Krishna Menon (1939). A Primer of Malayalam Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.
- P. K. Parameswaran Nair (1967). History of Malayalam Literature. Translated by E. M. J. Venniyoor. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
- ISBN 9788126415786.
- Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
- Verghese Ittiavira (1968). Social Novels in Malayalam. Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society.
- T. Bhaskaran (1970). Malayalam poetics with special reference to Krishnagatha (PhD Thesis). hdl:10603/147356.
- Krishna Chaitanya (1971). A History of Malayalam Literature. Orient Longman.
- ISBN 9788126004133.
- Trivandrum: Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
- Trivandrum: Educational Supplies Depot.
- Trivandrum: Dravidian Linguistics Association.
- Ganga Ram Garg (1988). International Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Vol. 6. Delhi: Mittal Publications.
- K. M. Tharakan (1990). A Brief Survey of Malayalam Literature. Kottayam: N.B.S.
- Madras: Annu Chithra Publications.
- Malayalam
- P. Govindapilla (1881). മലയാളഭാഷാചരിത്രം [Malayala Bhasha Charitram] (in Malayalam).
- R. Narayana Panickar (1929–1951). കേരള ഭാഷാസാഹിത്യചരിത്രം [Kerala Bhasha Sahitya Charitram] (Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3, Volume 4, Volume 5, Volume 6 and Volume 7) (in Malayalam).
- Travancore University.
- P. K. Parameswaran Nair (1956). മലയാള സാഹിത്യചരിത്രം [Malayala Sahitya Charitram] (in Malayalam). New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
- Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai (1957). കേരളഭാഷയുടെ വികാസപരിണാമങ്ങള് [Keralabhashayude Vikasaparinamangal] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: S.P.C.S.
- Erumeli Parameswaran Pillai (1966). മലയാളസാഹിത്യം കാലഘട്ടങ്ങളിലൂടെ [Malayala Sahityam Kalaghattangaliloode] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: Vidyarthi Mithram.
- Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
- K. M. Tharakan (1982). ആധുനിക നോവല് ദര്ശനം [Adhunika Novel Darsanam] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: S.P.C.S.
- K. Ashokan (1982). നോവല് മലയാളത്തില് തകഴി മുതല് മുകുന്ദന്വരെ [Novel Malayalathil: Thakazhi Muthal Mukundan Vare] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: N.B.S.
- Trichur: Current Books.
- George Irumbayam (1984). മലയാള നോവല് പത്തൊമ്പതാം നൂറ്റാണ്ടില് [Malayala Novel Pathonpatham Nuttandil] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: S.P.C.S.
- Kalpetta Balakrishnan (1986). ചരിത്രനോവല് മലയാളത്തില് [Charitra Novel Malayalathil] (in Malayalam). Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
- Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
- Alleppey: Gauthama.
- George Irumbayam (1998). നോവല് സി.വി. മുതല് ബഷീര് വരെ [Novel C. V. Muthal Basheer Vare] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: S.P.C.S.
- K. P. Ramesh (1998). ആധുനികാനന്തരമലയാള നോവല് [Adhunikanantara Malayala Novel] (in Malayalam). Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
- Kalpetta Balakrishnan (2000). മലയാളസാഹിത്യചരിത്രം [Malayala Sahitya Charitram] (in Malayalam). Trivandrum: Kerala Bhasha Institute.
- Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
- Panmana Ramachandran Nair, ed. (2008). സമ്പൂർണ്ണ മലയാള സാഹിത്യ ചരിത്രം [Sampoorna Malayala Sahitya Charitram] (in Malayalam). Kottayam: DC Books.
- Trichur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi.
External links
- Malayalam Literature at the website of the Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala
- Selected bibliography of Malayalam literature in English translation. University of Washington Libraries
- Evolution of Malayalam Language on YouTube
- History of Malayalam Literature at Malayalam Resource Centre
- Malayalam Poems