Mamluk architecture
Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan in Cairo, Egypt (1356–1361); Centre: Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun in Cairo (1285); Bottom: Citadel of Qaitbay in Alexandria , Egypt (late 15th century) | |
Years active | 1250–1517 (combined with other styles after 1517) |
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Mamluk architecture was the architectural style that developed under the
Major Mamluk monuments typically consisted of multi-functional complexes which could combine various elements such as a patron's mausoleum, a
While the Mamluk empire was
History
The Mamluks were a military corps recruited from slaves that served under the
Bahri Mamluk period
Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich architectural legacy throughout Cairo and in other major cities of their empire.[10] Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces in Cairo was sold and replaced by newer buildings, becoming a prestigious site for the construction of Mamluk religious and funerary complexes.[11] Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city.[12]
The end of the Ayyubid period and the start of the Mamluk period were marked by creation of the first multi-purpose funerary complexes in Cairo. The last Ayyubid sultan, al-Salih Ayyub, founded the Madrasa al-Salihiyya in 1242. His wife, Shajar ad-Durr, added his mausoleum to it after his death in 1249, and then built her own mausoleum and madrasa complex in 1250 at another location south of the Citadel.[13] These two complexes were the first in Cairo to combine a founder's mausoleum with a religious and charitable complex, which would come to characterize the nature of most Mamluk royal foundations afterward.[13][14] The early Mamluk period that followed became an era of architectural experimentation, during which some trends of later Mamluk architecture began to develop.[15] For example, by the late Bahri period entrance portals had developed into the distinctive tall, recessed portals with muqarnas ("stalactite" sculpting) canopies that remained common until the end of the Mamluk sultanate. Architects also experimented with the placement of different elements of a building complex (like the domed mausoleum chamber or the minaret) in order to enhance the visual impact of their monuments in an urban setting.[15]
The defeat of the
After al-Nasir Muhammad's death (1341), Cairo was hit by the
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Mausoleum of Sultan Baybars in Damascus (built 1277–1281), with marble and glass mosaics
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Complex of Qalawun in Cairo (built in 1284–85). It included a mausoleum, a madrasa, and a maristan (hospital).[23]
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Courtyard of the Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad (built in 1318 and modified in 1335) at the Citadel of Cairo
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Entrance portal of the Mosque of Ahmad al-Mihmandar (1325), built by one of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad's emirs
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Madrasa of Umm al-Sultan Sha'ban (1368–1369); the two domes correspond to mausoleum chambers
Burji Mamluk period
The Burji Mamluk sultans followed the artistic traditions established by their Bahri predecessors. The architecture of the early Burji period continued the style of the late Bahri period.
In the late Mamluk period new complexes were generally more restrained in size and were given increasingly complicated and irregular layouts, as architects had to contend with the limited spaces available to build in crowded cities.
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Prayer hall of the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Barquq (built between 1384 and 1386) in Cairo
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Mosque of al-Utrush in Aleppo (1410), an example of provincial Mamluk architecture
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Interior of a mausoleum in the Khanqah-Mosque of Faraj ibn Barquq (built between 1400 and 1411) in the Northern Cemetery of Cairo
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Mosque of al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh (built between 1415 and 1420), with its mausoleum dome visible
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Complex of Sultan Qaytbay (1474) in the Northern Cemeteryof Cairo
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Complex of Sultan al-Ghuri(1505), a two-part building with a madrasa on one side and a khanqah and mausoleum on the other
Ottoman period
In 1517 the
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Mosque of Mahmud Pasha (1568)
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Details inside the Sinan Pasha Mosque (1571)
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Sabil-Kuttab of Abd ar-Rahman Katkhuda(1744)
Neo-Mamluk architecture
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, a "Neo-Mamluk" style was also used in Egypt, which emulated the forms and motifs of Mamluk architecture but adapted them to modern architecture. Patrons and governments favoured it partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles and a concordant effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles (though the architects were sometimes Europeans).[7][8][45] Examples of this style are the Museum of Islamic Arts in Cairo, the Al-Rifa'i Mosque, the Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque in Alexandria, and numerous private and public buildings such as those of Heliopolis.[7][8][45][46]
Characteristics
Overview
Mamluk architecture is distinguished by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings.
Mamluk buildings could include a single mausoleum or a small charitable building (e.g. a public drinking fountain), while larger architectural complexes typically combined many functions into one or more buildings. These could include charitable functions and social services, such as a
Among other developments, during the Mamluk period the cruciform or
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Example of portal, façade, dome, and minaret visually juxtaposed along a main street in Cairo (Mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi, circa 1481)
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Example of aComplex of Sultan al-Ghuri, circa 1505)
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Example of a Mamluk mosque in the traditional hypostyle form, the al-Maridani Mosque (1340)
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Example of the cruciformfour-iwan layout in the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Barquq(1386)
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Example of monumental entrance portal at the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Barquq (1386)
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Earliest example of ornate groin vault, in the vestibule of the Madrasa of Uljay al-Yusufi (1373)
Decoration
The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate as the Mamluk period progressed. In the Bahri Mamluk period
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Stucco decoration in the former vestibule of the Sultan Qalawun's mausoleum (1285)
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Stucco-carved mihrab in theMadrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad(1304)
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Stucco decoration on the minaret of the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad (1304)
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Stucco decoration around the dome of the Madrasa of Sunqur Sa'di (circa 1321)
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Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan(1356–1361)
Over time, especially as stone construction replaced brick, stone carving and colored marble mosaics or paneling became the dominant decorative methods.[15][55] These were used on walls and for the pavement of floors. Influences from the Syrian region and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends.[15] The motifs themselves include geometric patterns and vegetal arabesques, along with bands and panels of calligraphy in floriated Kufic, Square Kufic, and Thuluth scripts.[60] In religious structures, the mihrab (a concave wall niche symbolizing the direction of prayer) was often the focus of internal decoration. The "conch" (concave part) of the mihrab niche was frequently decorated with a radiating "sunrise" motif.[61] The "blazon" of the founder was sometimes included in varying locations amongst the decoration, but this was not a consistent feature of all buildings. A Mamluk blazon was typically a roundel which contained a calligraphic rendition of the sultan's name and title.[62]
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Stone with inlaid mosaic decoration in the Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun (1285), including Square Kufic motifs
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Mihrab with central "sunrise" motif and glass mosaics in the spandrels above, at the Taybarsiyya Madrasa (1304) at Al-Azhar Mosque
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Marble and stone-paneled mihrab and wall of the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan (1356–1361)
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Example of marble mosaic pavement in the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq (1386)
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Stone-carved and marble mosaic decoration above an entrance of the Mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi (1481)
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Blazon of Qaytbay carved onto the drum of his mausoleum dome (c. 1474)
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Stone carving on the minaret of Qaytbay (1495) at the Al-Azhar Mosque
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CalligraphicMadrasa-Mosque of al-Ghuri(1505)
Wood was used throughout the Mamluk era, although it became harder to procure in the late period. Wooden ceilings had painted and gilded decoration that resembled book illumination of the same period.[63] Minbars (pulpits), the only major furniture in mosques, were also usually ornate works of wood-carving and inlaid decoration featuring geometric motifs.[63] The doors of religious monuments were typically sheeted with bronze which was fashioned into geometric patterns as well. The richest examples are the doors of the Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan; those of its entrance were appropriated and moved to al-Mu'ayyad's mosque afterwards, but the doors of the mausoleum, which are also inlaid with floral patterns in silver and gold, remain in their original place.[63]
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Painted and gilded wooden ceiling in theSabil-Kuttab of Sultan Qaytbay(1479)
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Wooden minbar gifted to the Mosque of al-Salih Talai by Baktimur al-Jugandar circa 1300; one of the oldest surviving Mamluk minbars[64]
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Details on the wooden Minbar of al-Ghamri (circa 1451)
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The bronze and silver-inlaid doors of themausoleum of Sultan Hasan(mid-14th century)
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Bronze-plating decoration on the doors of the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Barquq (1384)
Minarets
Mamluk minarets became very ornate and usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others, a characteristic which was generally unique to Cairo.[65] Early Bahri minarets were more often built in brick, but some, like the minarets of Qalawun's complex and of al-Nasir Muhammad's mosque, were built in stone. From the 1340s onward stone minarets became more common and eventually were the standard.[65] In Mamluk constructions the masons who built the minarets were – at least in some cases – different from the masons who built the rest of the building, as evidenced by the signatures of the masons on certain monuments. As a result, the builders of minarets were probably specialized in this task and were able to experiment on their own more than the builders of the main structure.[65]
Minarets in the Bahri period initially continued the trend of earlier Fatimid and Ayyubid minarets, with square shafts ending in a lantern structure – known as a mabkhara ("incense burner") – topped by a
Later Mamluk minarets in the Burji period most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level.
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The minaret of Sultan Qalawun's complex, originally built in 1285. The third level was rebuilt in brick by his son in 1303. The conical cap is from Ottoman repairs centuries later.[68]
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Minaret of the Mausoleum of Salar and Sanjar (1303), with an example of the mabkhara-style summit
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Minaret of Amir el-Maridani Mosque (1340), the earliest example of the style which was repeated in later minarets
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Twin minarets of Bab Zuweila, built between 1415 and 1420 for the nearby Mosque of al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh
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Minaret of the Madrasa-Mosque of al-Ashraf Barsbay (1425)
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Minaret of theFunerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay(1474)
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Minaret of the Mosque of Qanibay Qara (1503), with a rectangular shaft and double lantern summit
Domes
According to scholar Doris Behrens-Abouseif, the evolution of Mamluk domes followed similar trends to that of minarets but happened at a slower pace.
A number of wood or brick domes in the Bahri period were double-shelled domes (meaning an outer dome built over an inner dome) and had a bulbous or bulging profile which resembles that of later
Later domes in the Burji period were more strongly pointed and had tall drums. Stone domes were progressively given more detailed surface decoration, starting with simple motifs like "
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Ribbed domes of theMausoleum of Salar and Sanjar(1303)
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Plain dome of the Khanqah of Baybars al-Jashankir (1310)
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Bulbous dome at the Sultaniyya Mausoleum (circa 1350s)
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Dome of the Mosque of Aytimish al-Bajasi (1383)
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One of the mausoleum domes of the Khanqah of Faraj ibn Barquq (circa 1411)
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Stone dome with carved chevron pattern (Mosque of al-Mu'ayyad, 1420)
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Interior of al-Mu'ayyad's dome, with example of muqarnas-carved pendentives
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Stone dome with carved geometric pattern (Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay, circa 1432)
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Stone dome with superimposed geometric and floral motifs at theFunerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay(completed in 1474)
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Stone dome with arabesque motifs (Mosque of Qanibay Qara, 1503)
Portals
Mamluk entrance portals were a prominent part of the façade and were heavily decorated, similar to other architectural traditions in the Islamic era. However, the overall façade of a building was often composed of other elements such as windows, a sabil and maktab, and general decoration, which attenuated the prominence of the entrance portal in comparison to other architectural styles like those of Syria.[83] The portals of the Bahri period were varied in their designs. Some, like that of Qalawun's complex (1285) and Sanjar and Salar's Mausoleum (1303), were decorated with features like marble paneling but were not architecturally emphasized in their proportions or position in the overall façade of the building.[83] By contrast, the most monumental and impressive portal of the Bahri era belongs to the Khanqah of Baybars al-Jashankir (1310).[83]
Portals were often recessed into the façade and ended in an ornate stone-carved canopy above. Among other variations, a common design for the canopy in the mid-14th century was muqarnas vaulting, or a
In the 15th century, during the Burji period, portals that were mostly decorated with muqarnas became less common. The main entrance portal of the Mosque of al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh (built between 1415 and 1420) was also the last truly monumental portal built in the Mamluk period.[88] After this, portals with a "trilobed" profile and groin vaulting – typically a semi-dome above two other quarter-domes that resembled squinches – became the main theme. Some of these incorporated muqarnas into the squinches as well. This composition was also later adopted for the interior pendentives of domes, which may indicate parallel developments between portal architecture and dome architecture.[89] The most impressive groin vault portal was the gate of Bab al-Ghuri built in 1511 at Khan al-Khalili.[55]
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Entrance of Sultan Qalawun's complex (1285), with ablaq decoration
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Portal of the Khanqah of Baybars al-Jashankir (1310)
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Example of portal topped by a semi-dome with muqarnas under it, at the Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad (1318 and 1335)
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Portal of the Palace of Amir Qawsun: the inner portal with semi-dome and muqarnas dates from 1337, while the muqarnas canopy above dates from Qaytbay's reign (1468–1496)[90][91]
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Entrance portal with flat muqarnas canopy at theMosque of Amir Ulmas al-Hajib(1330)
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Massive portal of theMosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan(1356–1361)
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Pyramidal muqarnas canopy, along with ablaq, marble mosaic, and carved stone decoration, in the portal of the Madrasa of Umm al-Sultan Shaban (1368)
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Entrance portal of the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh (1420)
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Trilobed entrance portal with groin vaults at the Funerary complex of Barsbay (1432)
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Trilobed entrance portal with groin vaults and muqarnas at theFunerary complex of Qaytbay(1474)
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Elaborate groin vault gateway built by Sultan al-Ghuri at the Khan el-Khalili (1511)
Apartment complexes
Multi-story buildings occupied by rental apartments, known as a rab' (plural ribā' or urbu), became common in the Mamluk period and continued to be a feature of the city's housing during the later Ottoman period.[92][93] This type of housing was a relatively unique to Cairo at the time. These apartments were often laid out as multi-story duplexes or triplexes. They were sometimes attached to caravanserais (wikalas) where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the upper floors above were rented out to tenants. Even in the case of these wikala-rab' combinations, the apartment complexes had their own street entrances separate from the commercial complex below.[92] The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir Qawsun, which was built before 1341, but multiple later examples have survived from later centuries, either as part of caravanserais or as independent buildings.[92][93] Residential buildings in Cairo were in turn organized into close-knit neighbourhoods called a harat, which in many cases had gates that could be closed off at night or during disturbances.[93]
Role of architectural patronage
The patrons of architecture during the Mamluk period included both the sultans themselves and their mamluk amirs (commanders and high-ranking officials). Mamluk architectural complexes and their institutions were protected by
Additionally, the provisions of the pious endowments also served the role of providing a financial future for the sultan's family after his death, as the Mamluk Sultanate was non-hereditary and the sultan's sons only rarely succeeded in taking the throne after his death, and rarely for long.[2][5] The sultan's family and descendants could benefit by retaining control of the various waqf establishments he built, and by legally retaining a part of the revenues from those establishments as tax-free income, all of which could not, in theory, be annulled by the regimes of subsequent sultans. As such, the building zeal of the Mamluk rulers was also motivated by very real pragmatic benefits, as recognized by some contemporary observers like Ibn Khaldun.[4]
Mamluk architecture beyond Cairo
Throughout the Mamluk period, Cairo remained by far the most important center of architectural patronage, as befitting its central political role as capital and economic role as a center of trade and craftsmanship. Partly as a result of this, the architecture and craftsmanship of monuments outside Cairo also rarely matched that of Cairo itself.[94] For most of the Mamluk period, the sultans rarely sponsored religious complexes or other non-military works outside Cairo.[95] There were exceptions, most notably Sultan Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), who sponsored new religious and charitable constructions in several cities beyond Cairo.[96][34] He even sent craftsmen from Egypt in order to reproduce the architectural style of Cairo in these locations.[34] The sultans did regularly maintain or restore major religious sites such as the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount) in Jerusalem and the mosques of Medina and Mecca.[95] Most provincial monuments were instead commissioned by local Mamluk governors and amirs, or sometimes by wealthy local merchants.[95]
Beyond Cairo and Egypt, the major urban centres of the empire were located in Greater Syria. Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, and Tripoli all contain numerous Mamluk-era monuments to this day. In the Syrian region, local architecture remained relatively conservative, largely perpetuating the established architectural traditions that existed under the earlier Ayyubid dynasty with regards to the style of domes, minarets, and other distinctive elements. The entrance portals were often the most impressive elements, while minarets, by contrast with Cairo, were less monumental and less ornate.[97] Mamluk monuments in Syria, like those of Cairo, were essentially funerary monuments centered on the mausoleum of the founder. As in Cairo, the mausoleum chamber was usually positioned next to the street so as to be highly visible. Compared to Cairo, however, these funerary complexes were smaller in scale and their facilities or accommodations were not as extensive as those of the capital.[97]
Damascus
Damascus had its own architectural traditions and the established Ayyubid style continued to be heavily influential during the Mamluk period. As Damascus was the "second city" of the Mamluk sultanate, it was one of the most patronized cities outside of Cairo.[98][10] Although many of the Mamluk buildings from this era have been damaged or only partly preserved, the city still contains the second-highest concentration of Mamluk monuments after Cairo.[99] Early Mamluk structures continued the established local tradition of flamboyant stonework and muqarnas portals, which eventually spread to Mamluk architecture in Cairo in the 14th century.[85]
The
Madrasas were already an established feature of Damascus and the Mamluks built new ones while also restoring or expanding old ones. A total of 78 madrasas existed in the city during the Mamluk period, in addition to two other madrasas reserved for women.[106] Madrasas were often combined with the tombs of their founders to form religious-funerary complexes, as in Cairo. Prestigious Funerary monuments continued to be built in the established necropolis of al-Salihiyah, northwest of the walled city, but new funerary complexes also began to be built around the area of al-Midan in the early 14th century.[107] The latter area stretched along the road towards Mecca and it also contained exercise fields and training grounds for the Mamluks. Its northern section was enclosed by a wall in 1291. The southernmost area of construction in the Midan was known as Qubaybat ("little domes"), due to the large number of domed tombs. At the time, this area was mostly rural but today most of it has been overtaken with modern constructions. Only a few Mamluk-era monuments remain there today, including the al-Karimi or al-Dakak Mosque (1318), the Madrasa Qunshliya (1320), and the Mausoleum of Altunbugha (1329).[108] One of the most impressive Mamluk buildings from the 14th century, the Madrasa al-'Ajami, was built by a local businessman before or around 1348. It is located along a main street just outside the southwestern wall of the city. Its street façade demonstrates a more complete integration of contemporary Mamluk decoration with the local Damascus traditions, featuring decorative multi-coloured stonework and a tall recessed portal with a muqarnas canopy.[109] Caravanserais were also built in the city during the Mamluk period. Only two remain today: the Khan al-Dikka, which is only partly preserved, and the Khan Jaqmaq, which was first built in 1418 but then rebuilt in 1601 during the Ottoman period.[110]
One of the worst episodes of destruction occurred in 1401 when
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Al-Karimi Mosque (1318, possibly with later renovations)
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Al-Sanjakdar Mosque, built by a Mamluk governor in 1347–1349
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Entrance portal of the Madrasa al-'Ajami (c. 1348)
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Entrance portal of the Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiyya (1418–1420, restored in 20th century)
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Interior of the Madrasa al-Jaqmaqiyya (1418–1420, restored in 20th century)
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Exterior of the Madrasa al-Sabuniyya (1459–1464)
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Entrance portal of Madrasa al-Sabuniyya (1459–1464)
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Minaret of Qaytbay at the Great Mosque of Damascus (1482–1488)
Aleppo
Aleppo suffered from the Mongol invasions of 1260 but progressively recovered afterwards. The early years of Mamluk rule in the city were occupied by repairs and restorations.[116] The city walls were extended further east, which opened up new space for future constructions. In the early 14th century some Mamluk governors commissioned mausoleums for themselves, but few major monuments were built in this early period.[116] One interesting monument is the Mehmendar Mosque (1302), whose round minaret (departing from the Ayyubid tradition of square minarets) is carved in a style reminiscent of Artuqid, Seljuk or Ilkhanid architecture.[116] Another religious construction, the Mosque of Ala al-Din Altunbugha al-Nasiri, was built in 1318 and is still mostly Ayyubid in style except for the more elaborate entrance portal and minaret.[116] The 1354 establishment of the Maristan of Arghun al-Kamil or Maristan Arghuni, a large bimaristan (hospital) for the mentally ill, was the most significant creation of the early Mamluk period in the city. It was composed of six units, each devoted to different types of treatment, arranged around three internal courtyards.[116][47] Its doorway, however, was likely reused from an earlier Ayyubid building.[116]
Towards the late 14th century Aleppo's prosperity increased more definitively as
During Timur's invasion in 1400 Aleppo surrendered without a fight and was spared the destruction dealt to Damascus. However, like the rest of Syria, its craftsmanship suffered from the mass deportation of the region's craftsmen to Timur's capital in Central Asia.[117] Nonetheless, in the 15th century the city continued to prosper, grew beyond its old walls, and new monumental buildings were added in various areas.[116] The al-Utrush Mosque, begun in 1399 by the Mamluk governor Aqbugha al-Utrush but finished by his successor Demirdash in 1410,[117] displayed a much stronger Mamluk influence in its details and was built on a more imposing scale.[116] One of the most audacious constructions was a large banquet hall or reception hall built on top of the two Ayyubid towers and gatehouse at the entrance of the Citadel. It was added by the Mamluk governor Jakam min 'Iwad in 1406–07. The hall has ornate windows on its outer façade, while the interior was covered by roof of nine domes. (The hall later fell into ruins and was reconstructed in the 20th century with a flat roof and limited accuracy.)[116][47][118] The oldest surviving khans in the city date from this period, including the Khan al-Qadi (1441), originally built as a madrasa but quickly converted to commercial use, and the Khan al-Sabun (1479), notable for its ornate window.[116]
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The minaret of the Mehmendar Mosque (1302)
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Maristan of Arghun al-Kamili (1354), entrance portal (possibly Ayyubid)
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Maristan of Arghun al-Kamili (1354), internal courtyard
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Muqarnas over the entrance of the Tawashi Mosque (1372)
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Decorative engaged column carved at the Tawashi Mosque (1372)
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Hammam of Yalbugha (1389)
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The Mamluk banquet hall (1406–07) built over the Ayyubid gatehouse of the Citadel of Aleppo
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Details of the decorated façade of the al-Utrush Mosque (1410)
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Ornate window over the entrance of the Khan al-Sabun (1479)
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Mausoleum of Khayr Bak (1514) (not to be confused with the funerary complex by the same founder in Cairo)
Jerusalem
Jerusalem was another site of significant patronage outside Cairo. The frequent building activity in the city during this period is evidenced by the 90 remaining buildings that date from the 13th to 15th centuries.
Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Haram al-Sharif, typically clustering around the main streets leading to the sanctuary.
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Portal of the Madrasaal-Tankiziyya(1328–29)
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Suq al-Qattanin (Cotton Market), originally built by Tankiz (1336–7)
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Bab al-Qattanin, a gate on the Haram al-Sharif from the market (1336–7)
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Portal of the Madrasa as-Sallāmiyya (1338)
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Al-Fakhriyya Minaret on the edge of the Haram al-Sharif, built in the second half of the 14th century or in the 15th century
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Portico windows of the Madrasa al-Manjakiyya, built on top of other structures on the western edge of the Haram al-Sharif (1351)
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Portal of the Palace of Lady Tunshuk (circa 1388)
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Street façade of the Madrasa al-Muzhiriyya (1480–81)
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Portal of theMadrasa al-Ashrafiyya(1482)
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Sabil of Qaytbay on the Haram al-Sharif (1482)
Tripoli
The ancient city of Tripoli (present-day Lebanon) was captured by Sultan Qalawun from the Crusaders in 1289. The Mamluks destroyed the old city and built a new city 4 km inland from it.
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Great Mosque of Tripoli (circa 1294); the arcades are Mamluk but the minaret was an earlier Christian structure[130]
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Street façade of the Madrasa al-Nasiriyya (1354–60)
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The entrance portal of the Madrasa al-Nuriyya (14th century)
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Details of the portal of the Madrasa al-Tawashiyya
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The inner portal of the Taynal Mosque (circa 1336)
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The Lion Tower, a coastal watch tower built by the Mamluks near Tripoli (photo circa 1900)
Other towns in Egypt
Alexandria, the ancient capital of Egypt, declined over the Mamluk period. It did not receive significant patronage, but Mamluk rulers did build heavy fortifications to defend it from seaborne attacks.[141][34] The ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was progressively damaged by earthquakes, was maintained up until its collapse in the first half of the 14th century.[34][142] The most notable Mamluk monument in the city is the Citadel of Qaytbay, built afterwards upon the ruins of the lighthouse. The construction of the citadel re-used the remaining foundations of the lighthouse and was completed in 1479.[141][142]
One of the oldest surviving mosques in Damietta is the Mosque of al-Mu'ini (mid-15th century), which is also described in historical sources as a madrasa. It includes the mausoleum of its founder, Muhammad al-Mu'ini, a rich merchant who died in 1455. The mosque has been much restored and its original octagonal minaret was demolished due to safety concerns in 1929. Its original Mamluk portal, no longer used as the main entrance, is located next close to the mausoleum chamber (whose dome is visible) and to original minaret. Its most remarkable feature is an elaborate marble mosaic pavement that scholar Bernard O'Kane believes is from the original Mamluk construction and which Doris Behrens-Abouseif describes as comparable to the best examples in Cairo.[143][144]
The town of al-Khanqah, north of Cairo, was formerly known as Siryaqus until Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad built a khanqah, palace, and marketplace there in 1324. However, the only surviving Mamluk structure is the Mosque of Sultan al-Ashraf Barsbay, dating to 1437. It consists of a hypostyle hall with a central courtyard. Many of the columns are reused from old structures. The mosque is sparsely decorated except for the mihrab, which has marble inlaid with geometric and arabesque motifs. The ceiling was originally had painted decoration as well, but only a part of this was restored in the 20th century and remains today. The minaret is almost identical to the minaret of Barsbay's mosque at al-Muizz Street in Cairo, built 12 years earlier.[145]
The Mosque of Asalbay, in the Fayoum, dates from 1498 to 1499 but has been significantly modified and restored over time. Among its original elements is a well-preserved and restored wooden minbar decorated with geometric patterns and inlay.[146]
See also
References
Citations
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- ^ Raymond 1993, p. 143-153.
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- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Tripoli (i)
- ^ a b "Jami' al-Mansuri al-Kabir". Archnet. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
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- ^ a b Mohamad, Danah (2020). Review of the Development and Change of Tripoli Bazaar in Lebanon (PDF). Bursa Uludağ University (Master's thesis). p. 81.
- ^ "Qantara - Madrasa al-Qartâwîyya". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
- ^ "Madrasa al-Nasiriyya". Archnet. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
- ^ "Madrasa Khayriyya Hasan". Archnet. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
- ^ "Madrasa al-Nuriyya". Archnet. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
- ^ "Anonymous Mashhad". Archnet. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
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