Manchuria under Qing rule
Manchuria under Qing rule | |||||||||||
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Military governorates; later provinces of the Qing dynasty | |||||||||||
1616–1912 | |||||||||||
Manchuria within the Qing dynasty in 1820, including Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang. | |||||||||||
• Type | Qing hierarchy | ||||||||||
History | |||||||||||
• Later Jin established | 1616 | ||||||||||
1652–1689 | |||||||||||
• Amur Annexation by Russians | 1858–1860 | ||||||||||
• Conversion into provinces | 1907 | ||||||||||
• Establishment of Republic of China | 1912 | ||||||||||
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History of Manchuria |
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Manchuria under Qing rule was the rule of the Qing dynasty of China (and its predecessor the Later Jin dynasty) over the greater region of Manchuria, including today's Northeast China and Outer Manchuria, although Outer Manchuria was lost to the Russian Empire after the Amur Annexation. The Qing dynasty itself was established by the Manchus, a Tungusic people from Manchuria, who later replaced the Ming dynasty as the ruling dynasty of China. Thus, the region is often seen to have had a special status during the Qing and was not governed as regular provinces until the late Qing dynasty, although the name "Manchuria" itself is an exonym of Japanese origin and was not used by the Qing dynasty in Chinese or Manchu.[1]
History
The
However, during the
Since the region was considered the homeland of the
ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ dergi ilan golo; simplified Chinese: 东三省; traditional Chinese: 東三省; pinyin: Dōng Sānshěng).[11]
Han Chinese farmers were resettled from North China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation.[12] Wasteland was reclaimed by Han Chinese squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords.[13] Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.[14] The Qianlong Emperor allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776.[15] Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area.[16] Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking Jinzhou, Fengtian, Tieling, Changchun, Hulun, and Ningguta was settled by Han Chinese during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.[17] To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the Daoguang Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s according to Abbe Huc.[18] However, the policy for banning the Han Chinese citizens from moving to northern part of Manchuria was not officially lifted until 1860, when Outer Manchuria was lost to the Russians during the Amur Annexation by the Russian Empire. After that, the Qing court started to encourage immigration of Han Chinese into the region, which began the period of Chuang Guandong.
After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as Zhongguo ("中國", the term for "China" in modern Chinese), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu.[19][20][21] "China" thus referred to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. The lands in Manchuria were explicitly stated by the Qing to belong to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk.[22]
In Manchuria in 1800 the rich Han Chinese merchants stood at the top of the social ladder, just below the high-ranking banner officers, with whom they had many social, cultural and business relationship - merchant and officers often meeting one another on terms of equality. Han Chinese society in Manchuria was an uprooted society of immigrants, most of whom, except in Fengtian (Liaoning), had lived where they were for only a number of decades. Although the settlers had come mainly from Zhili, Shandong and Shanxi and had brought with them many of the social patterns of those provinces, the immigrants derived from the poorer and less educated elements of society, with the result that at the beginning of the nineteenth century a "gentry" class of the type known in China proper - families of education, wealth and prestige who had exercised social leadership in a given locality for generations - had only recently come into being in Fengtian province and cannot be said to have existed in the Manchurian frontier at all. At the bottom of the society were the unskilled workmen, domestic servants, prostitutes and exiled convicts, including slaves. One of the capacities in which Manchuria, especially Jilin and Heilongjiang, had served the Qing Empire was as a place of exile, not only for disgraced officials but also for convicted criminals. The worse the crimes and the more hardened the offenders, the farther north the Qing judicial system generally sent them. Many of these criminals took up crafts or small businesses, eventually becoming dependable members of society, but their presence in increasing numbers added to the lawless, rough-and-ready character of Manchurian frontier society.[23]
Manchuria from the early to middle Qing period was governed by the military governors of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang. In both Jilin and Heilongjiang, most of whose territories were not easily accessible, there lived a considerable Han Chinese outlaw population. The numbers of these outlaws had grown rapidly in the eighteenth century, and continued to grow in the nineteenth. Some of them, especially the goldminers and
At the end of the 19th century and turn of the 20th century, to counteract increasing Russian influence, the Qing dynasty abolished the existing administrative system in Manchuria (created by the bannermen) and reclassified all immigrants to the region as Han (Chinese) instead of minren (民人, civilians, non-bannermen), while replacing provincial generals with provincial governors. This reform occurred when Manchuria was a battleground between Russia and Japan. From 1902 to 1911, seventy civil administrations were created due to the increasing population of Manchuria.[25]
After the loss of the Outer Manchuria to the Russians and the
See also
- Manchuria under Yuan rule
- Manchuria under Ming rule
- Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
- Mongolia under Qing rule
- Xinjiang under Qing rule
- Tibet under Qing rule
- Taiwan under Qing rule
- History of Manchuria
References
- ^ The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies by Mark C. Elliott, p. 607.
- ^ Edmonds (1985), pp. 115–117.
- ^ Du Halde (1735).
- ^ Bisher (2006), p. 6.
- ^ "The Amur's siren song". The Economist (From the print edition: Christmas Specials ed.). Dec 17, 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
- ^ Forsyth (1994), p. 104.
- ^ Stephan (1996), p. 64.
- ^ Kang (2013), p. 26.
- ^ Kim (2013), p. 169.
- ^ Richards 2003, p. 141.
- S2CID 240875661.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 504.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 505.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 506.
- ^ Scharping (1998), p. 18.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 507.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 508.
- ^ Reardon-Anderson (2000), p. 509.
- ^ Hauer & Corff (2007), p. 117.
- ^ Dvořák (1895), p. 80.
- ^ Wu (1995), p. 102.
- ^ Zhao (2006), pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14.
- ^ The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, by John K. Fairbank, p46
- ^ The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, by John K. Fairbank, p47
- ISBN 978-1-4985-3705-6.
Sources
- Bisher, Jamie (2006), White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian, Routledge, ISBN 1135765952
- Dvořák, Rudolf (1895), Chinas Religionen, Aschendorff
- Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste (1735), Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise, vol. IV, Paris: P.G. Lemercier
- Edmonds, Richard Louis (1985), Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy, University of Chicago, Department of Geography, ISBN 0-89065-118-3
- Forsyth, James (1994), A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521477719
- Hauer, Erich; Corff, Oliver (2007), Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache (in German), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447055284
- Kang, Hyeokhweon (2013), "Big Heads and Buddhist Demons: The Korean Military Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658" (PDF), Emory Endeavors, 4: Transnational Encounters in Asia, archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-12-07, retrieved 2015-06-06
- Kim, Loretta (2013), "Saints for Shamans? Culture, Religion and Borderland Politics in Amuria from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries", Central Asiatic Journal, 56: 169–202,
- Reardon-Anderson, James (2000), "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty", Environmental History, 5 (4): 503–530, S2CID 143541438
- Scharping, Thomas (1998), "Minorities, Majorities and National Expansion: The History and Politics of Population Development in Manchuria 1610-1993", Cologne China Studies Online – Working Papers on Chinese Politics, Economy and Society (Kölner China-Studien Online – Arbeitspapiere zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas), Modern China Studies, Chair for Politics, Economy and Society of Modern China, at the University of Cologne
- Stephan, John J. (1996), The Russian Far East: A History, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804727015
- Wu, Shuhui (1995), Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams, 1717-1727: Anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao (in German), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3447037563
- Zhao, Gang (2006), "Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century", Modern China, 36 (3): 3–30, S2CID 144587815