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After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed due to the rise of Islamic extremism and the absence of protection against it, with most of the community relocating to Iran, Syria and Jordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond the Middle East. Mandaeans have been forcibly converted to Islam, making them apostates from Islam if they revert to their religion, thereby risking being murdered. Such Mandaeans have voiced feeling unsafe in any Muslim country for this reason.[26][27][28][29][30]
The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious
Etymology
The name "Mandaean" comes from the Mandaic word manda, meaning "to have knowledge".[33][34]
In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called
History
Origin
According to a theory first proposed by
There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in
There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the
The
A priest holds the title of
Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."[65] The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by Rishama Salah Choheili states:
Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from the Jordan Valley about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of the Tigris, Euphrates and Karun Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran. Baptism is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.[66]
Parthian and Sasanian period
A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in
Islamic period
The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the
Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center.[67]: 5 Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (see below) who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.[67]: 5
The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the
It has been suggested by some scholars that
Early modern period
Early contact with
The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the
Modern Iraq and Iran
Following the
The 2003
The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in
Population
Iraqi Mandaeans
- Further information (in Arabic): Mandaeans in Iraq
Prior to the Iraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as Nasiriyah, Amarah, Qal'at Saleh,[77] Wasit,[42]: 92 and Basra, as well as in Baghdad (particularly the district of Dora[78]). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as Qurna and Suq al-Shuyukh.[79]
Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr.[80] Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during Saddam Hussein's rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.[81] Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.[81][82] Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.[81] Mandaeism is pacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.[81][83]: 91 During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.[42]
Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.[26][27] Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War.[29] In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.[14]
Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.[5]: 161
Notable Iraqi Mandaeans
- wave theory physicist, dynamical meteorologist, and President Emeritus of the University of Baghdad; MIT graduate (1946); chair of physics at Baghdad University; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.[84][85]
- Abdul Razzak Abdul Wahid (1930–2015), poet.
- Nouman Abid Al-Jader (1916–1991), University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) graduate (1950); acting dean of the College of Science – University of Baghdad; chair of mathematics at the University of Baghdad; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.[86][87]
- Abdul Athem Alsabti (1945–), supernova astrophysicist who introduced astronomy teaching into Iraq in 1970; University of Manchester graduate (1970); minor planet 10478 Alsabti named after him; president of the British Mandaean Council; founded the Iraqi Astronomical Society and Carl Zeiss Planetarium, Baghdad; project leader for the Iraqi National Astronomical Observatory.[88][89][90]
- Siham Alsabti (1942–), actress.
- Dakheel Edan.
- Faisal I and Ghazi), and the British royal family including the Prince of Wales who became Edward VIII.[91][92][93][94][95]
- Dakheel Edan (1881–1964), patriarch and international head of the Mandaeans from 1917, until his death in 1964.[96]
- Rishama Abdullah bar Negm (early 1900s–2009), patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq during the late 1900s.
- Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, current patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq.[97][98]
- Najiya Murrani (1919–2011), author, poet.[99]
- Aziz Sbahi, secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party; writer.[100]
- Zaidoon Treeko (1961–), Oud player, composer, and poet.
- Makki Al-Badri (1926–2014), actor.
- Jalal Shaker, footballer.
Iranian Mandaeans
The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the Associated Press.[15] Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.[101]
Until the
They were mainly employed as goldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation.[101]
In Iran, the Gozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other gozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.[102] These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Baháʼís.[103]
In 2002, the
Notable Iranian Mandaeans
- Ganzibra Jabbar Choheili (1923–2014), head of the Mandaean community in Iran until his death in 2014.[107]
- Rishama Salah Choheili, the current patriarch and head of the Mandaean community in Australia[108]
Other Middle Eastern Mandaeans
Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughout Jordan, Syria,[109] and Iran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 2,500 (2018)[18][110] and in Syria there are about 1,000 remaining (2015).[110][13]
Diaspora
There are Mandaean diaspora populations in
Australia
The
Sweden
Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are between 10,000 and 20,000 Mandaeans in Sweden (2019).[5][113][81] The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans for the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.[15][82]
On September 15, 2018, the
United States
In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in
The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007,
Religion
Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing Mandaeism, which is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion[67]: 4 [129][130] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term gnosis.)[130] Its adherents revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist.[130][33][131] Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.[49]: 45 [132]
The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.
Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).[133]
In Mandaeism, the
: 8The Lord of Darkness (
According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by
Scholarship
According to Edmondo Lupieri, as stated in his article in Encyclopædia Iranica,
The possible historical connection with
origins of Christianity. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaean incantation bowls and lead amuletsproved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans’ departure from Palestine.
The Mandaean author Aziz Sbahi in his book, The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs, traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the Dead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.[143] Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley of Palestine, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.[42]: 55
Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for a Palestinian origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.[144]: xiv [60][145][67][146][147][148][149][150] Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with Jews".[151][152] In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, G. Quispel and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.[139]: 78 [153][154][155][156][157][158] James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.[159][155] Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"[160] and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."[144]: xv Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptist.[161] Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins[25]: 97 and adds:
[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].[25]: 109
Other names
Sabians
During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with the
Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,[166] although many other possible identifications have been proposed.[167] Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.[168] Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.[169]
Nasoraeans
The
The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.
— Epiphanius' Panarion 1:18
Language
Genetics
According to the Iranian Journal of Public Health:[174]
About 20 centuries ago, Mandaeans migrated from
GSTM1 null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 27.1%, 56.0%, 55.2%, and 55.2% (9, 10), respectively. On the other hand, the frequency of the GSTT1null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 24.2%, 22.0%, 26.0%, 22.1% (9, 10), respectively. Comparisons between Iranian Mandaeans and above-mentioned populations demonstrating that Mandaeans showed higher and lower levels of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, respectively. There was [a] remarkable difference between Mandaeans and other mentioned populations for the frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype. Mutation, gene flow and natural selection should be disregarded in [the] interpretation [of] the influence of evolutionary forces on Mandaeans and their surrounding gene pools. In Iran and Iraq Mandaeans lived as small and isolated ethno-religious communities. Therefore, genetic drift, at least in part might account for differences between Mandaeans and other populations.
See also
- Related historical groups
- Bana'im
- Dositheans
- Elcesaites
- Ebionites
- Essenes
- Gnostics
- Hemerobaptists
- Maghāriya
- Nazarene (sect)
- Quqites
- Sethians
- Valentinians
- Other topics
Notes
- ^ Including 450 in Iraqi Kurdistan
- ^ After the mysterious Sabians mentioned in the Quran, a name historically claimed by several religious groups. For adherents of other religions sometimes called 'Sabians', see Sabians#Pagan Sabians.
- ^ The fatwā is numbered differently between Persian (S 322) and its official English (Q 321) translation but reads as follows:
س 322. تعداد زیادی از مردم در خوزستان زندگی می کنند که خود را «صابئه» می نامند و ادعای پیروی از پیامبر خدا حضرت یحیی(ع) را دارند و می گویند کتاب او نزد ما موجود است. نزد علمای ادیان ثابت شده که آن ها همان صابئون هستند که در قرآن آمده است. لطفاً بیان فرمایید که این گروه از اهل کتاب هستند یا خیر؟
ج. گروه مذکور در حکم اهل کتاب هستند.[75]
Translation of the Persian original:
S 322. There are a large number of people living in Khuzestan who call themselves "Ṣābeʾe" and who claim to follow God's holy Prophet Yahya (ʿayn) and say that his book is available to us. It has also been proven by scholars of religions and they are the Ṣābeʾūn mentioned in the Qorʾān. Please state if this group is among the People of the Book [Ahl-e Ketāb] or not?
J: The mentioned group are subject to the ruling on People of the Book [ahl-e Ketāb].
Official English translation:
Q 321: There live a large number of people in Khuzestan who call themselves Sabeans and claim that they are the followers Prophet Yaḥyā (a.s.) and that they possess his scripture. It has also been established for the religious scholars that they are the Sabeans mentioned in the Qur’an. Please explain whether they are among the People of the Book.
A: The rule of the People of the Book is applicable to this group.[76]
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External links
- Mandaean Associations Union
- Resources of the language of the Mandaeans Archived November 4, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments
- Mandaean Human Rights Group (2008), Mandaean Human Rights Annual Report (PDF), AINA
- James McGrath on The Mandaeans and Mandaean Gnosticism (2015)