Mandalay

Mandalay (/ˌmændəˈleɪ/ or /ˈmændəleɪ/; Burmese: မန္တလေး; MLCTS: manta.le: [mándəlé]) is the second-largest city in Myanmar, after Yangon. Located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, 631 km (392 miles; road distance) north of Yangon, the city has a population of 1,225,553 (2014 census).

Mandalay was founded in 1857 by King

Today, Mandalay is the economic centre of Upper Myanmar and considered the centre of Burmese culture. A continuing influx of irregular Chinese immigrants, mostly from Yunnan, since the late 20th century, has reshaped the city's ethnic makeup and increased commerce with China.^{[4][5][dead link]} Despite Naypyidaw's recent rise, Mandalay remains Upper Myanmar's main commercial, educational and health center.

Etymology

The city gets its name from the nearby Mandalay Hill. The name is probably a derivative of a Pali word, although the exact word of origin remains unclear. The root word has been speculated to be maṇḍala (မဏ္ဍလ), referring to circular plains^[6] or Mandara, a mountain from Hindu mythology.^[7]

When it was founded in 1857, the royal city was officially named Yadanarbon (ရတနာပုံ, [jədənàbòʊɰ̃]), a loan of the Pali name Ratanapūra (ရတနပူရ) "City of Gems."^[8][9] It was also called Lay Kyun Aung Myei (လေးကျွန်းအောင်မြေ, [lé dʑʊ́ɰ̃ àʊɰ̃ mjè], "Victorious Land over the Four Islands") and Mandalay Palace (မြနန်းစံကျော်, [mja̰ náɰ̃ sàɰ̃ tɕɔ̀], "Famed Royal Emerald Palace").

History

Early history

Like most former (and present) capitals of Burma, Mandalay was founded on the wishes of the ruler of the day. On 13 February 1857, King

Pāli Canon.

In June 1857, the former royal palace of Amarapura was dismantled and moved by elephants to the new location at the foot of Mandalay Hill, although construction of the palace compound was officially completed only two years later, on Monday, 23 May 1859.^[10]

For the next 26 years, Mandalay was to be the last royal capital of the Konbaung dynasty, the last independent Burmese kingdom before its final annexation by the British Empire. Mandalay ceased to be the capital on 28 November 1885 when the British conquered the city and sent Thibaw Min and his queen Supayalat into exile in India. Moreover, a group of drunken soldiers set fire to the Pitakataik (Royal Library) which had contained the genealogies of kings and the kingdom's official records. Mandalay was razed. However, the palace, its structures and the city walls were spared destruction.^[13]

Colonial Mandalay (1885–1948)

Dufferin

and used it to billet troops.

Myowun (Mayor) of Mandalay, c. 1900

Map of Mandalay, 1911

Throughout the colonial years, Mandalay was the centre of Burmese culture and Buddhist learning, and as the last royal capital, was regarded by the Burmese as a primary symbol of sovereignty and identity. Between the two World Wars, the city was Upper Burma's focal point in a series of nationwide protests against the British rule. The British rule brought in many immigrants from India to the city. In 1904–1905, a plague caused about one-third of the population to flee the city.^[6]

19th Indian Division

and a Lee tank in action during street fighting in Mandalay, 9–10 March 1945.

During

mint

and the watch tower survived. (A faithful replica of the palace was rebuilt in the 1990s.)

Contemporary Mandalay (1948–present)

After the country gained independence from Britain in 1948, Mandalay continued to be the main cultural, educational and economic hub of Upper Burma. Until the early 1990s, most students from Upper Burma went to Mandalay for university education. Until 1991, Mandalay University, the University of Medicine, Mandalay and the Defence Services Academy were the only three universities in Upper Burma. Only a few other cities had "Degree Colleges" affiliated with Mandalay University that offered a limited number of subjects. Today, the city attracts a fraction of students as the military government requires students to attend their local universities in order to reduce concentration of students in one place.

In November 1959, Mandalay celebrated its centennial with a festival at the foot of Mandalay Hill. Special commemorative stamps were issued.^[21]

During Ne Win's isolationist rule (1962–1988), the city's infrastructure deteriorated. By the early 1980s, the second largest city of Burma resembled a town with low-rise buildings and dusty streets filled mostly with bicycles. In the 1980s, the city was hit by two major fires. In May 1981, a fire razed more than 6,000 houses and public buildings, leaving more than 90,000 homeless.^[22] On 24 March 1984, another fire destroyed 2,700 buildings and made 23,000 people homeless.^[23][24] The fire caused US$96 million in property damage.^[22]

Fires continue to plague the city. A major fire destroyed Mandalay's second largest market, Yadanabon Market, in February 2008, and another major fire in February 2009 destroyed 320 homes and left over 1600 people homeless.^[25][26]

Illegal Chinese immigration

The 1980s fires augured a significant change in the city's physical character and ethnic makeup. Huge swaths of land left vacant by the fires were later purchased, mostly by the

Upper Burma in the 1990s and many ending up in Mandalay, living illegally there.^[28][5] In the 1990s alone, about 250,000 to 300,000 Yunnanese are estimated to have migrated to Mandalay.^[29] Today, ethnic Chinese people are believed to make up about 40%–50% of the city's population that is nearly the same as the natives,^[29] and are a major factor in the city's doubling of population from about 500,000 in 1980 to one million in 2008. Chinese festivals are now firmly embedded in the city's cultural calendar.^[27] The Chinese dominance in the city center has pushed out the rest to the suburbs. The urban sprawl now encompasses Amarapura, the very city King Mindon left some 150 years ago. Mandalay celebrated its 150th birthday on 15 May 2009, at precisely 4:31:36 am.^[6]

Despite the rise of Naypyidaw, the country's capital since 2006, Mandalay remains Upper Burma's main commercial, educational and health center. In October 2018, Mandalay was ranked by CIO Asia as number fifth among the top 10 cities in Southeast Asia in the process of becoming a smart city for ASEAN Smart Cities Network.^[30]

Geography

Mandalay is located in the central Dry Zone of Burma by the Irrawaddy river at 21.98° North, 96.08° East, 80 meters (260 feet) above sea level. Its standard time zone is UTC/GMT +6:30 hours and is 626 km from Yangon.

Mandalay lies along the

India and Sunda plates. The biggest earthquake in its history, occurred on 23 March 1839, an estimated magnitude 8.2 destroyed the formal capital Ava and caused extreme destruction in nearby cities. The most recent quake was a magnitude of 7, occurred in 1956.^[31] The devastation was greatest in nearby Sagaing, and it came to be known as the Great Sagaing Quake

.

Bodies of water near Mandalay are Mandalay Kantawgyi, a small lake and Irrawaddy River to the west of the city.

Climate

The

diurnal temperature variation

in the dry season than the wet season.

Climate data for Mandalay (1991–2020)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	37.2 (99.0)	39.2 (102.6)	42.8 (109.0)	48.0 (118.4)	45.0 (113.0)	42.0 (107.6)	41.6 (106.9)	39.8 (103.6)	43.4 (110.1)	39.2 (102.6)	38.5 (101.3)	34.5 (94.1)	48.0 (118.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	29.8 (85.6)	33.2 (91.8)	37.0 (98.6)	39.1 (102.4)	37.1 (98.8)	35.6 (96.1)	35.4 (95.7)	34.3 (93.7)	34.2 (93.6)	33.4 (92.1)	31.7 (89.1)	29.3 (84.7)	34.2 (93.6)
Daily mean °C (°F)	22.0 (71.6)	24.8 (76.6)	29.0 (84.2)	32.0 (89.6)	31.6 (88.9)	30.9 (87.6)	30.8 (87.4)	30.1 (86.2)	29.9 (85.8)	28.8 (83.8)	26.0 (78.8)	22.6 (72.7)	28.2 (82.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	14.2 (57.6)	16.3 (61.3)	20.9 (69.6)	25.0 (77.0)	26.0 (78.8)	26.3 (79.3)	26.3 (79.3)	25.9 (78.6)	25.6 (78.1)	24.2 (75.6)	20.3 (68.5)	15.8 (60.4)	22.2 (72.0)
Record low °C (°F)	8.0 (46.4)	10.0 (50.0)	12.8 (55.0)	15.0 (59.0)	17.4 (63.3)	20.0 (68.0)	20.0 (68.0)	19.5 (67.1)	20.5 (68.9)	18.5 (65.3)	11.1 (52.0)	7.6 (45.7)	7.6 (45.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	5.3 (0.21)	3.1 (0.12)	7.2 (0.28)	42.1 (1.66)	151.8 (5.98)	90.8 (3.57)	73.2 (2.88)	159.5 (6.28)	176.7 (6.96)	142.8 (5.62)	36.3 (1.43)	5.5 (0.22)	894.3 (35.21)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)	0.6	0.5	1.0	4.2	9.9	7.8	6.9	10.3	11.6	8.8	3.0	0.6	65.1
Average relative humidity (%)	68	58	49	50	66	73	71	76	76	77	74	72	68
Mean monthly sunshine hours	309	280	301	291	267	208	182	168	215	223	269	278	2,991
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[33]
Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun and relative humidity, 1931–1960),[34] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows),[32]

Cityscape

Around the city

• vihara
  ", is also one of the well known sights. The original structure was destroyed by a fire in 1890 though the masonry plinth survived. The reconstruction project was started by the government on 2 May 1995 and completed in June 1996.
• world's largest book

Mahamuni Buddha Temple: The image of Gautama Buddha at Mahamuni Buddha Temple is said to have been cast in the life-time of the Gautama Buddha and that the Buddha embraced it seven times, thereby bringing it to life. Consequently, devout Buddhists hold it to be alive and refer to it as the Mahamuni Sacred Living Image. Revered as the holiest pagoda in Mandalay, It was built by King Bodawpaya in 1784. The image in a sitting posture is 12 feet and 7 inches (3.8 m) high. As the image was brought from Rakhine State, it was also called the Great Rakhine Buddha. The early morning ritual of washing the Face of Buddha Image draws a large crowd of devotees every day. The Great Image is also considered ^{[by whom?]} as the greatest in Burma next to Shwedagon Pagoda.

• Shwenandaw Monastery: known for its wood carvings, it was a part of the old palace. In 1880 it was moved by King Thibaw to its current site close to Atumashi Monastery.

  

• U Bein Bridge : known for the oldest and (once) longest teakwood bridge in the world. It was constructed when the capital of Ava Kingdom moved to Amarapura .
• Yadanabon Zoological Gardens: A small zoo between the Mandalay Palace and Mandalay Hill. It has over 300 species and is notably the only zoo to have Burmese roofed turtles.

Administration

The Mandalay Region Government is the government for Mandalay Region including Mandalay City. The Mandalay City Development Committee (MCDC) is municipal organization for Mandalay City. The Mandalay District consists of seven townships.

• Amarapura
• Aungmyethazan
• Chanayethazan (city centre)
• Chanmyathazi
• Maha Aungmye
• Patheingyi
• Pyigyidagun

Transport

Mandalay's strategic location in Central Burma makes it an important hub for transport of people and goods. The city is connected to other parts of the country and to China and India by multiple modes of transportation.

Air

Mandalay International Airport (MDL) was one of the largest and most modern airports in Myanmar until the modernization of Yangon International Airport in 2008. Built at a cost of US$150 million in 2000, it is highly underused; it serves mostly domestic flights with the exception of those to Kunming and to/from Bangkok and Chiang Mai, with daily flights on Air Asia and Bangkok Airways.^[35] The airport has come to represent the military regime's propensity for bad planning and penchant for white elephant projects.^[36] Myanmar's recent opening stance on tourism means the airport is now receiving a growing number of visitors from Bangkok and Chiang Mai.

The airport is far from the city, 45 km (28 mi) on a modern highway. Before the construction of this airport, Mandalay Chanmyathazi Airport was the main airport of the city. The airport serves some flights to Myanmar towns.

River

The

Rail

Mandalay does not have an intra-city metro rail system. The former Trams in Mandalay has been decommissioned.

Roads

Mandalay literally is at the center of Burma's road network. The highway network includes roads towards:^[37]

• Upper Burma and China—Mandalay–
  Asian Highway route 14 or AH14)^[38]
• Western Burma and India—Mandalay–
  Tamu Road^[38]
• Lower Burma–
  AH1^[38]

In March 2008, Mandalay had nearly 81,000 registered motor vehicles[42] plus an unknown number of unregistered vehicles. Although the number of cars in a city of one million is low, traffic in Mandalay is highly chaotic as thousands of bicycles and (unregistered) motorbikes freely roam around all the lanes of the streets. Unlike in Yangon where motorbikes, cycle rickshaws and bicycles are prohibited from entering downtown and busy areas, in Mandalay it is anything goes. In 2018, as part of Mandalay Smart City initiatives, new traffic lights with internet-connected sensors have been installed by Mandalay City Development Committee to manage traffic at junctions.^[43]

Demographics

A 2007 estimate by the UN puts Mandalay's population at nearly 1 million. The city's population is projected to reach nearly 1.5 million by 2025.

Burmese is the principal language of the city, while Chinese is increasingly heard in the city's commerce centers as the second language. English is the third language, only known by some urban people.

• 
  The Yunnanese Buddhist Temple and Association in Mandalay is a major Chinese temple in the city.
• 
  Population of Mandalay in 2014

Culture

The buildings inside the old Mandalay city walls, surrounded by a moat, which was repaired in recent times using prison labor, comprise the Mandalay Palace, mostly destroyed during World War II. İt is now replaced by a replica, military Prison and a military garrison, the headquarters of the Central Military Command.

Media

Much of the media in Mandalay – like elsewhere in Burma – comes from Yangon. The city's non-satellite

Sports

Mandalay's sporting facilities are quite poor by international standards but are still the best in Upper Burma. The 17,000 seat

At Waterfall Hill, the first bolted rock climbing site in Myanmar have been developed with the help of Mandalay climbers led by Steve, Tylor and Technical Climbing Club of Myanmar since 2010. [54] ^{[55] [56]}

Economy

Burma

. Much of Burmese external trade to China and India goes through Mandalay.

Among the leading traditional industries are silk weaving, tapestry, jade cutting and polishing, stone and wood carving, making marble and bronze Buddha images, temple ornaments and paraphernalia, the working of gold leaves and of silver, the manufacture of matches, brewing and distilling.

Chinese immigrants have increasingly dominated Mandalay's economy since the imposition of sanctions by the United States and the European Union in the 1990s.

Education

See also: Category:Universities and colleges in Mandalay

University of Mandalay

Mandalay has the best educational facilities and institutions, after Yangon, in Burma where state spending on education is among the lowest in the world.^[57] Students in poor districts routinely drop out in middle school as schools have to rely on forced "donations" and various fees from parents for nearly everything – school maintenance to teachers' salaries.^[58] For the rest of the students who cannot afford to go abroad for studies, Mandalay offers Upper Burma's best institutions of higher education. There are over 15 universities in the city. The city's

University of Mandalay, University of Medicine, Mandalay, University of Dental Medicine, Mandalay, Mandalay Technological University and University of Computer Studies, Mandalay

are among the nation's most selective universities.

Health care

See also: List of hospitals in Mandalay

The general state of health care in Burma is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.^[59][60]

In 2005, the public health care system of Mandalay Region with over 7.6 million people consisted of slightly over 1000 doctors and about 2000 nurses working in 44 hospitals and 44 health clinics. Over 30 of the so-called hospitals had less than 100 beds.^[37] Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment.

Nonetheless, Mandalay remains the main health care center for Upper Burma^[61] as almost all of large public hospitals and private hospitals are in Mandalay. The city has ten public hospitals and one hospital specializing in traditional Burmese medicine. For a semblance of adequate health care, the well-to-do from Upper Burma go to private hospitals and clinics in Mandalay. For more advanced treatments, they have to go to Yangon or abroad. The wealthy Burmese routinely go abroad (usually Bangkok or Singapore) for treatment.^[62]

Twin towns – sister cities

Mandalay is

twinned

with:

• Cirebon, Indonesia
• Kunming, China
• Phnom Penh, Cambodia
• Ulsan, South Korea

Mandalay in popular culture

• Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem called "Mandalay" (1890), which is the origin of the phrase "on the road to Mandalay".^[63] In 1907, the poem was set to music by Oley Speaks as On the Road to Mandalay. Speaks' version was widely recorded. Among the best known renditions is the one by Frank Sinatra on Come Fly With Me.
• Bithia Mary Croker wrote a novel in 1917, The Road to Mandalay, which was the uncredited basis for a 1926 American silent film. Of this, only excerpts survive. A further film of the same name was directed by Midi Z in 2016.
• The large hotel/casino/convention center Mandalay Bay in Las Vegas is named for the city, despite the fact that the city is 500 kilometers from the nearest bay, perhaps in reference to the line in Kipling's poem, "An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! "
• George Orwell was stationed at Mandalay for a time while working for the Indian Imperial Police in Burma, and his first novel, Burmese Days (1934), was based on his experiences in Burma. He also wrote a number of short non-fiction essays and short stories about Burma, such as "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting an Elephant" (1936).
• John Masters wrote a book about his wartime experiences in Burma called The Road Past Mandalay (1961)..
• In the animated series, Nellie the Elephant, the main protagonist of the series is on a journey to return to her home in Mandalay after leaving the circus.
• The American film studio Mandalay Pictures is named after the city. The logo also features a tiger, which is often seen roaming around the city.
• British pop singer Robbie Williams sang a song called Eternity/The Road to Mandalay which was released as a single in 2001.

Notable people

• Saw Maung (1928–1997), Burmese general, chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council
• Zwe Ohn Chein (1910–1979), Burmese inventor, writer and teacher

Gallery

• 
  Mandalay Hill
• 
  Moat
• 
  Maha Aungmye Bonzan Monastery in Inwa
• 
  Mandalay Palace Watch Tower
• 
  The Palace of Mirrors (Hmannan) inside Mandalay Palace
• 
  Great Audience Hall in Mandalay Palace
• 
  Shwe Kyaung, a famous monastery
• 
  Mandalay early Thingyan Festival
• 
  Opening Ceremony Myanmar Thingyan Festival in front of the City Hall
• 
  Kuthodaw Pagoda and Sandar Muni Pagoda
• 
  A Mandalayan girl
• 
  Now defunct old Sagaing Bridge

See also

• Sacred Heart Cathedral, Mandalay
• Sandamuni Pagoda
• Setkyathiha Pagoda
• Shwekyimyin Pagoda
• State Pariyatti Sasana University, Mandalay

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Bibliography

• ISBN 978-1-101-11812-2
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mandalay.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Mandalay.

• Mandalay travel guide from Wikivoyage
• See also nearby Pyin Oo Lwin, the historic hill station above Mandalay Archived 4 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
• "Mandalay in 1885–1888 – the letters of James Alfred Colbeck" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2007. (107 
  KiB
  ) SOAS
• Mandalay Gallery with antique, colonial views of Mandalay
• Mandalay, the Burmese Heartland by Dr. Constance Wilson, Northern Illinois University
• Asian Historical Architecture – Mandalay by Prof. Robert D. Fiala, Concordia University, Nebraska
• Mandalay Centenary Song by Than Myat Soe
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Mandalay
Preceded by Amarapura	Capital of Burma 23 May 1859 – 29 November 1885	Succeeded by Yangon