Manganese

Edit links
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with magnesium (Mg).
For other uses, see Manganese (disambiguation).

Manganese, 25Mn
A rough fragment of lustrous silvery metal
Pure manganese cube and oxidized manganese chips
Manganese
Pronunciation/ˈmæŋɡəniːz/ ​(MANG-gə-neez)
Appearancesilvery metallic
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Mn)
Manganese in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Mn
↓
Tc
chromium ← manganese → iron
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization221 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.32 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1228 1347 1493 1691 1955 2333
Atomic properties
Johann Gottlieb Gahn (1774)
Isotopes of manganese
Main isotopes[5] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
52Mn synth 5.591 d
β+
 		52Cr
53Mn trace 3.7×106 y ε
53Cr
54Mn synth 312.081 d ε
54Cr
β− 54Fe
β+ 54Cr
55Mn 100%
stable
 Category: Manganese
| references

Manganese is a

symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese was first isolated in the 1770s. Manganese is a transition metal with a multifaceted array of industrial alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels
. It improves strength, workability, and resistance to wear. Manganese oxide is used as an oxidising agent; as a rubber additive; and in glass making, fertilisers, and ceramics. Manganese sulfate can be used as a fungicide.

Manganese is also an essential human dietary element, important in macronutrient metabolism, bone formation, and

free radical defense systems. It is a critical component in dozens of proteins and enzymes.[6] It is found mostly in the bones, but also the liver, kidneys, and brain.[7] In the human brain, the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins, most notably glutamine synthetase in astrocytes
.

It is familiar in the laboratory in the form of the deep violet salt

cluster, the oxygen-evolving complex
, in the production of oxygen by plants.

Characteristics

Physical properties

Manganese is a silvery-gray

paramagnetic.[10] Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes ("rusts") like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen.[citation needed
]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of manganese

Naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable

meta states.[11]

Manganese is part of the

107Pd for the early history of the Solar System. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites suggest an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio, which indicate that Mn–Cr isotopic composition must result from in situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence, 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the Solar System.[14][15][16][17]

Allotropes

Unit cell of an α-Mn crystal
Unit cell of a β-Mn crystal

Four allotropes (structural forms) of solid manganese are known, labeled α, β, γ and δ, and occurring at successively higher temperatures. All are metallic, stable at standard pressure, and have a cubic crystal lattice, but they vary widely in their atomic structures.[18][19][20]

Alpha manganese (α-Mn) is the equilibrium phase at room temperature. It has a

antiferromagnetic at temperatures below 95 K (−178 °C).[22]

Phase diagram of manganese[18]

Beta manganese (β-Mn) forms when heated above the transition temperature of 973 K (700 °C; 1,290 °F). It has a primitive cubic structure with 20 atoms per unit cell at two types of sites, which is as complex as that of any other elemental metal.[23] It is easily obtained as a metastable phase at room temperature by rapid quenching. It does not show magnetic ordering, remaining paramagnetic down to the lowest temperature measured (1.1 K).[23][24][25]

Gamma manganese (γ-Mn) forms when heated above 1,370 K (1,100 °C; 2,010 °F). It has a simple face-centered cubic structure (four atoms per unit cell). When quenched to room temperature it converts to β-Mn, but it can be stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with at least 5 percent of other elements (such as C, Fe, Ni, Cu, Pd or Au), and these solute-stabilized alloys distort into a face-centered tetragonal structure.[26][25]

Delta manganese (δ-Mn) forms when heated above 1,406 K (1,130 °C; 2,070 °F) and is stable up to the manganese melting point of 1,519 K (1,250 °C; 2,270 °F). It has a

body-centered cubic structure (two atoms per cubic unit cell).[19][25]

Chemical compounds

Manganese(II) chloride crystals – the pale pink color of Mn(II) salts is due to a spin-forbidden 3d transition.[27]

Common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3, +4, +6, and +7, although all oxidation states from −3 to +7 except –2 have been observed. Manganese in oxidation state +7 is represented by salts of the intensely purple permanganate anion MnO4−. Potassium permanganate is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties; it is used as a topical medicine (for example, in the treatment of fish diseases). Solutions of potassium permanganate were among the first stains and fixatives to be used in the preparation of biological cells and tissues for electron microscopy.[28]

Aside from various permanganate salts, Mn(VII) is represented by the unstable, volatile derivative Mn2O7.

oxidizing agents.[9] The most prominent example of Mn in the +6 oxidation state is the green anion manganate, [MnO4]2−. Manganate salts are intermediates in the extraction of manganese from its ores. Compounds with oxidation states +5 are somewhat elusive, and often found associated to an oxide (O2−) or nitride (N3−) ligand.[29][30] One example is the blue anion hypomanganate
[MnO4]3−.

Mn(IV) is somewhat enigmatic because it is common in nature but far rarer in synthetic chemistry. The most common Mn ore,

cave drawings but is also a common ingredient in dry cell batteries. Complexes of Mn(IV) are well known, but they require elaborate ligands. Mn(IV)-OH complexes are an intermediate in some enzymes, including the oxygen evolving center (OEC) in plants.[31]

Simple derivatives Mn+3 are rarely encountered but can be stabilized by suitably basic ligands.

Jahn-Teller effect.[citation needed
]

Aqueous solution of KMnO4 illustrating the deep purple of Mn(VII) as it occurs in permanganate

A particularly common oxidation state for manganese in aqueous solution is +2, which has a pale pink color. Many manganese(II) compounds are known, such as the

aquo complexes derived from manganese(II) sulfate (MnSO4) and manganese(II) chloride (MnCl2). This oxidation state is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite (manganese(II) carbonate). Manganese(II) commonly exists with a high spin, S = 5/2 ground state because of the high pairing energy for manganese(II). There are no spin-allowed d–d transitions in manganese(II), which explain its faint color.[32]

Oxidation states of manganese[33]
−3 Mn(CO)(NO)
3
−1 HMn(CO)
5
0 Mn
2(CO)
10
+1 MnC
5H
4CH
3(CO)
3
+2 MnCl
2, MnCO
3, MnO
+3 MnF
3, Mn(OAc)
3, Mn
2O
3
+4 MnO
2
+5 K
3MnO
4
+6 K
2MnO
4
+7 KMnO
4, Mn
2O
7
Common oxidation states are in bold.

Organomanganese compounds

Main article: Organomanganese chemistry

Manganese forms a large variety of organometallic derivatives, i.e., compounds with Mn-C bonds. The organometallic derivatives include numerous examples of Mn in its lower oxidation states, i.e. Mn(−III) up through Mn(I). This area of organometallic chemistry is attractive because Mn is inexpensive and of relatively low toxicity.[34]

Of greatest commercial interest is "MMT",

alkyne complexes are derived from Mn2(CO)10.[citation needed
]

In Mn(CH3)2(dmpe)2, Mn(II) is low spin, which contrasts with the high spin character of its precursor, MnBr2(dmpe)2 (

dmpe = (CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2).[35] Polyalkyl and polyaryl derivatives of manganese often exist in higher oxidation states, reflecting the electron-releasing properties of alkyl and aryl ligands. One example is [Mn(CH3)6]2−.[citation needed
]

History

The origin of the name manganese is complex. In ancient times, two black minerals were identified from the regions of the

magnesia alba (a white ore, also from Magnesia, also useful in glassmaking). Michele Mercati called magnesia nigra manganesa, and finally the metal isolated from it became known as manganese (German: Mangan). The name magnesia eventually was then used to refer only to the white magnesia alba (magnesium oxide), which provided the name magnesium for the free element when it was isolated much later.[38]

A drawing of a left-facing bull, in black, on a cave wall
Some of the cave paintings in Lascaux, France, use manganese-based pigments.[39]

Manganese dioxide, which is abundant in nature, has long been used as a pigment. The cave paintings in Gargas that are 30,000 to 24,000 years old are made from the mineral form of MnO2 pigments.[40]

Manganese compounds were used by Egyptian and Roman glassmakers, either to add to, or remove, color from glass.[41] Use as "glassmakers soap" continued through the Middle Ages until modern times and is evident in 14th-century glass from Venice.[42]

Credit for first isolating manganese is usually given to Johan Gottlieb Gahn.

Because it was used in glassmaking, manganese dioxide was available for experiments by alchemists, the first chemists.

Johann Glauber (17th century) discovered that manganese dioxide could be converted to permanganate, a useful laboratory reagent.[43] Kaim also may have reduced manganese dioxide to isolate the metal, but that is uncertain.[44] By the mid-18th century, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele used manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. First, hydrochloric acid, or a mixture of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium chloride was made to react with manganese dioxide, and later hydrochloric acid from the Leblanc process was used and the manganese dioxide was recycled by the Weldon process. The production of chlorine and hypochlorite bleaching agents was a large consumer of manganese ores.[citation needed
]

Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite (mineral form of manganese dioxide) contained a new element.

reducing the dioxide with carbon.[citation needed
]

The manganese content of some iron ores used in Greece led to speculations that steel produced from that ore contains additional manganese, making the Spartan steel exceptionally hard.[45] Around the beginning of the 19th century, manganese was used in steelmaking and several patents were granted. In 1816, it was documented that iron alloyed with manganese was harder but not more brittle. In 1837, British academic James Couper noted an association between miners' heavy exposure to manganese and a form of Parkinson's disease.[46] In 1912, United States patents were granted for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion with manganese phosphate electrochemical conversion coatings, and the process has seen widespread use ever since.[47]

The invention of the Leclanché cell in 1866 and the subsequent improvement of batteries containing manganese dioxide as cathodic depolarizer increased the demand for manganese dioxide. Until the development of batteries with nickel–cadmium and lithium, most batteries contained manganese. The zinc–carbon battery and the alkaline battery normally use industrially produced manganese dioxide because naturally occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities. In the 20th century, manganese dioxide was widely used as the cathodic for commercial disposable dry batteries of both the standard (zinc–carbon) and alkaline types.[48]

Manganese is essential to iron and

alloying properties.[49] This application was first recognized by the British metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet (1811–1891) who, in 1856, introduced the element, in the form of Spiegeleisen
.

Occurrence

See also: Category:Manganese minerals

Manganese comprises about 1000 

MnO2), braunite (Mn2+Mn3+6)SiO12),[50] psilomelane (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10, and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite (MnCO3
).

Manganese ore Psilomelane (manganese ore) Spiegeleisen is an iron alloy with a manganese content of approximately 15%. Manganese oxide dendrites on limestone from Solnhofen, Germany – a kind of pseudofossil. Scale is in mm Mineral rhodochrosite (manganese(II) carbonate)
Percentage of manganese output in 2006 by countries[49]

The most important manganese ore is pyrolusite (

ocean floor has 500 billion tons of manganese nodules.[52] Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s.[53]

In South Africa, most identified deposits are located near

Northern Cape Province, (Kalahari manganese fields), with a 2011 estimate of 15 billion tons. In 2011 South Africa produced 3.4 million tons, topping all other nations.[54]

Manganese is mainly mined in South Africa, Australia, China, Gabon, Brazil, India, Kazakhstan, Ghana, Ukraine and Malaysia.[55]

Production

For the production of ferromanganese, the manganese ore is mixed with iron ore and carbon, and then reduced either in a blast furnace or in an electric arc furnace.[56] The resulting ferromanganese has a manganese content of 30–80%.[9] Pure manganese used for the production of iron-free alloys is produced by leaching manganese ore with sulfuric acid and a subsequent electrowinning process.[57]

Contains reactions and temperatures, as well as showing advanced processes such as the heat exchanger and milling process.
Process flow diagram for a manganese refining circuit

A more progressive extraction process involves directly reducing (a low grade) manganese ore by

iron hydroxide (FeO(OH)) and elemental manganese (Mn).[citation needed
]

This process yields approximately 92% recovery of the manganese. For further purification, the manganese can then be sent to an electrowinning facility.[58]

Oceanic environment

In 1972 the

Soviet submarine, the K-129, with the goal of retrieving Soviet code books.[60]

An abundant resource of manganese in the form of manganese nodules found on the ocean floor.[61] These nodules, which are composed of 29% manganese,[62] are located along the ocean floor. The environmental impacts of nodule collection are of interest.[63] [64]

Dissolved manganese (dMn) is found throughout the world's oceans, 90% of which originates from hydrothermal vents.[65] Particulate Mn develops in buoyant plumes over an active vent source, while the dMn behaves conservatively.[66] Mn concentrations vary between the water columns of the ocean. At the surface, dMn is elevated due to input from external sources such as rivers, dust, and shelf sediments. Coastal sediments normally have lower Mn concentrations, but can increase due to anthropogenic discharges from industries such as mining and steel manufacturing, which enter the ocean from river inputs. Surface dMn concentrations can also be elevated biologically through photosynthesis and physically from coastal upwelling and wind-driven surface currents. Internal cycling such as photo-reduction from UV radiation can also elevate levels by speeding up the dissolution of Mn-oxides and oxidative scavenging, preventing Mn from sinking to deeper waters.[67] Elevated levels at mid-depths can occur near mid-ocean ridges and hydrothermal vents. The hydrothermal vents release dMn enriched fluid into the water. The dMn can then travel up to 4,000 km due to the microbial capsules present, preventing exchange with particles, lowing the sinking rates. Dissolved Mn concentrations are even higher when oxygen levels are low. Overall, dMn concentrations are normally higher in coastal regions and decrease when moving offshore.[67]

Soils

Manganese occurs in soils in three oxidation states: the divalent cation, Mn2+ and as brownish-black oxides and hydroxides containing Mn (III,IV), such as MnOOH and MnO2. Soil pH and oxidation-reduction conditions affect which of these three forms of Mn is dominant in a given soil. At pH values less than 6 or under anaerobic conditions, Mn(II) dominates, while under more alkaline and aerobic conditions, Mn(III,IV) oxides and hydroxides predominate. These effects of soil acidity and aeration state on the form of Mn can be modified or controlled by microbial activity. Microbial respiration can cause both the oxidation of Mn2+ to the oxides, and it can cause reduction of the oxides to the divalent cation.[68]

The Mn(III,IV) oxides exist as brownish-black stains and small nodules on sand, silt, and clay particles. These surface coatings on other soil particles have high surface area and carry negative charge. The charged sites can adsorb and retain various cations, especially heavy metals (e.g., Cr3+, Cu2+, Zn2+, and Pb2+). In addition, the oxides can adsorb organic acids and other compounds. The adsorption of the metals and organic compounds can then cause them to be oxidized while the Mn(III,IV) oxides are reduced to Mn2+ (e.g., Cr3+ to Cr(VI) and colorless hydroquinone to tea-colored quinone polymers).[69]

Applications

Steel

Hadfield steel
manganese alloy

Manganese is essential to iron and

alloying properties. Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in these applications in metallurgy.[49] Steelmaking,[70] including its ironmaking component, has accounted for most manganese demand, presently in the range of 85% to 90% of the total demand.[57] Manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel.[71][72]
Often ferromanganese (usually about 80% manganese) is the intermediate in modern processes.

Small amounts of manganese improve the workability of steel at high temperatures by forming a high-melting sulfide and preventing the formation of a liquid

tensile strength of up to 863 MPa.[73][74] Steel with 12% manganese was discovered in 1882 by Robert Hadfield and is still known as Hadfield steel (mangalloy). It was used for British military steel helmets and later by the U.S. military.[75]

Aluminium alloys

Main article: Aluminium alloy

Manganese is used in production of alloys with aluminium. Aluminium with roughly 1.5% manganese has increased resistance to corrosion through grains that absorb impurities which would lead to

beverage cans.[77] Before 2000, more than 1.6 million tonnes of those alloys were used; at 1% manganese, this consumed 16,000 tonnes of manganese.[failed verification][77]

Batteries

battery as an electron acceptor from zinc, and is the blackish material in carbon–zinc type flashlight cells. The manganese dioxide is reduced to the manganese oxide-hydroxide MnO(OH) during discharging, preventing the formation of hydrogen at the anode of the battery.[78]

MnO2 + H2O + e− → MnO(OH) + OH−

The same material also functions in newer alkaline batteries (usually battery cells), which use the same basic reaction, but a different electrolyte mixture. In 2002, more than 230,000 tons of manganese dioxide was used for this purpose.[48][78]

World-War-II-era 5-cent coin (1942-5 identified by mint mark P, D or S above dome) made from a 56% copper-35% silver-9% manganese alloy

Resistors

Copper alloys of manganese, such as

temperature coefficient of resistance and are resistant to sulfur. This makes the alloys particularly useful in harsh automotive and industrial environments.[79]

Fertilizers and feed additive

sulfate are components of fertilizers. In the year 2000, an estimated 20,000 tons of these compounds were used in fertilizers in the US alone. A comparable amount of Mn compounds was also used in animal feeds. [80]

Niche

unleaded gasoline to boost octane rating and reduce engine knocking. [81]

Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide, MnO2) is used as a reagent in

aromatic ring). Manganese dioxide has been used since antiquity to oxidize and neutralize the greenish tinge in glass from trace amounts of iron contamination.[42] MnO2 is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine and in drying black paints. In some preparations, it is a brown pigment for paint and is a constituent of natural umber.[82]

LEDs.[88]

The metal is occasionally used in coins; until 2000, the only United States coin to use manganese was the

Presidential $1 coins, are made from a brass containing 7% of manganese with a pure copper core.[90] In both cases of nickel and dollar, the use of manganese in the coin was to duplicate the electromagnetic properties of a previous identically sized and valued coin in the mechanisms of vending machines. In the case of the later U.S. dollar coins, the manganese alloy was intended to duplicate the properties of the copper/nickel alloy used in the previous Susan B. Anthony dollar
.

Manganese compounds have been used as pigments and for the coloring of ceramics and glass. The brown color of ceramic is sometimes the result of manganese compounds.

YInMn blue, the first new blue pigment discovered in 200 years.[citation needed
]

Biochemistry

Reactive center of arginase with boronic acid inhibitor – the manganese atoms are shown in yellow.
Main article: Manganese in biology

Many classes of

polypeptides are the diphtheria toxin, lectins, and integrins.[92]

The

light reactions of photosynthesis, i.e., it is the catalyst that makes the O2 produced by plants.[93][94]

Human health and nutrition

Manganese is an essential human dietary element. It is present as a

free radical defense systems. It is a critical component in dozens of proteins and enzymes.[6] The human body contains about 12 mg of manganese, mostly in the bones. The soft tissue remainder is concentrated in the liver and kidneys.[7] In the human brain, the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins, most notably glutamine synthetase in astrocytes.[95]

Current AIs of Mn by age group and sex[96]
Males Females
Age AI (mg/day) Age AI (mg/day)
1–3 1.2 1–3 1.2
4–8 1.5 4–8 1.5
9–13 1.9 9–13 1.6
14–18 2.2 14–18 1.6
19+ 2.3 19+ 1.8
pregnant: 2
lactating: 2.6

Regulation

The

Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of manganese the adult UL is set at 11 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[96] Manganese deficiency is rare.[97]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For people ages 15 and older the AI is set at 3.0 mg/day. AIs for pregnancy and lactation is 3.0 mg/day. For children ages 1–14 years the AIs increase with age from 0.5 to 2.0 mg/day. The adult AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.[98] The EFSA reviewed the same safety question and decided that there was insufficient information to set a UL.[99]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For manganese labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 2.0 mg, but as of 27 May 2016 it was revised to 2.3 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA.[100][101] A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Excessive exposure or intake may lead to a condition known as

neurodegenerative disorder that causes dopaminergic neuronal death and symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease.[7][102]

Deficiency

Main article: Manganese deficiency

Manganese deficiency in humans, which is rare, results in a number of medical problems. A deficiency of manganese causes skeletal deformation in animals and inhibits the production of collagen in wound healing.[103]

Exposure

In water

Waterborne manganese has a greater

intellectual impairment and reduced intelligence quotients in school-age children. It is hypothesized that long-term exposure due to inhaling the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7 million Americans at risk.[105] However, data indicates that the human body can recover from certain adverse effects of overexposure to manganese if the exposure is stopped and the body can clear the excess.[106]

Mn levels can increase in seawater is when hypoxic periods occur.

immunocytes and their functionality, such as phagocytosis and activation of pro-phenoloxidase, suppressing the organisms' immune systems. This causes the organisms to be more susceptible to infections. As climate change occurs, pathogen distributions increase, and in order for organisms to survive and defend themselves against these pathogens, they need a healthy, strong immune system. If their systems are compromised from high Mn levels, they will not be able to fight off these pathogens and die.[65]

Gasoline

Molecular model of methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT)

exhaust valves
.

Air

Compared to 1953, levels of manganese in air have dropped.

glutamate uptake and diminished lactate dehydrogenase leakage.[109]

Regulation

Manganese exposure in

immediately dangerous to life and health.[111]

Health and safety

Manganese is essential for human health, albeit in milligram amounts.

The current maximum safe concentration under U.S. EPA rules is 50 μg Mn/L.[112]

Manganism

Manganese overexposure is most frequently associated with manganism, a rare neurological disorder associated with excessive manganese ingestion or inhalation. Historically, persons employed in the production or processing of manganese alloys[113][114] have been at risk for developing manganism; however, health and safety regulations protect workers in developed nations.[110] The disorder was first described in 1837 by British academic John Couper, who studied two patients who were manganese grinders.[46]

Manganism is a biphasic disorder. In its early stages, an intoxicated person may experience depression, mood swings, compulsive behaviors, and psychosis. Early neurological symptoms give way to late-stage manganism, which resembles Parkinson's disease. Symptoms include weakness, monotone and slowed speech, an expressionless face, tremor, forward-leaning gait, inability to walk backwards without falling, rigidity, and general problems with dexterity, gait and balance.[46][115] Unlike Parkinson's disease, manganism is not associated with loss of the sense of smell and patients are typically unresponsive to treatment with L-DOPA.[116] Symptoms of late-stage manganism become more severe over time even if the source of exposure is removed and brain manganese levels return to normal.[115]

Chronic manganese exposure has been shown to produce a parkinsonism-like illness characterized by movement abnormalities.[117] This condition is not responsive to typical therapies used in the treatment of PD, suggesting an alternative pathway than the typical dopaminergic loss within the substantia nigra.[117] Manganese may accumulate in the basal ganglia, leading to the abnormal movements.[118] A mutation of the SLC30A10 gene, a manganese efflux transporter necessary for decreasing intracellular Mn, has been linked with the development of this Parkinsonism-like disease.[119] The Lewy bodies typical to PD are not seen in Mn-induced parkinsonism.[118]

Animal experiments have given the opportunity to examine the consequences of manganese overexposure under controlled conditions. In (non-aggressive) rats, manganese induces mouse-killing behavior.[120]

Toxicity

Manganese
Hazards
GHS labelling:
H401
P273, P501[121]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chlorideFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
0
0
0

Manganese compounds are less toxic than those of other widespread metals, such as

Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills and cognitive disorders.[124]

Neurodegenerative diseases

A protein called

mitochondrial dysfunction, glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, and aggregation of proteins.[125]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Manganese". CIAAW. 2017.
  2. ISSN 1365-3075
    .
  3. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9
    .
  4. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4
    .
  5. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
    .
  6. ^
    S2CID 73725546. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  7. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8
    .
  8. ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1
    .
  9. ^
    ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3
    .
  10. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9. Archived from the original
    on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
  11. ^
    doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001
    .
  12. ^ Clery, Daniel (4 June 2020). "The galaxy's brightest explosions go nuclear with an unexpected trigger: pairs of dead stars". Science. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  13. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.09.016
    .
  14. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00312-9
    .
  15. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00189-6
    .
  16. doi:10.1023/A:1005243228503
    .
  17. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.03.023
    .
  18. ^ a b c Young, D.A. (1975). "Phase diagrams of the elements". International Nuclear Information System. LNL: 15. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  19. ^ a b Dhananjayan, N.; Banerjee, T. (1969). Crystallographic modifications of manganese and their transformation characteristics. Chapter 1 of: Structure of Electro-Deposited Manganese. CSIR-NML. pp. 3–28.
  20. OCLC 961064866
    .
  21. ISSN 0950-1207
    .
  22. ISSN 0021-8979
    .
  23. ^
    S2CID 250784683
    .
  24. ISSN 0021-8979
    .
  25. ^
    ISSN 0921-4526
    .
  26. ISSN 0022-3719
    .
  27. ISBN 978-0-19-923617-6
    .
  28. PMID 13398447
    .
  29. PMID 24047467
    .
  30. PMID 17580977
    .
  31. PMID 24684576
    .
  32. ISBN 0-7167-4620-4
    .
  33. ^ Schmidt, Max (1968). "VII. Nebengruppe". Anorganische Chemie II (in German). Wissenschaftsverlag. pp. 100–109.
  34. PMID 31247867
    .
  35. doi:10.1021/ja00360a054
    .
  36. ^ languagehat (28 May 2005). "MAGNET". languagehat.com. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
  37. ^ Pliny the Elder. "Chapter 25—THE MAGNET: THREE REMEDIES". Natural History of Pliny. BOOK XXXVI. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF STONES.
  38. ^ Calvert, J. B. (24 January 2003). "Chromium and Manganese". Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  39. S2CID 250842390
    .
  40. S2CID 9221234
    .
  41. S2CID 25198686
    .
  42. ^
    S2CID 111314824
    .
  43. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1975.tb00329.x
    .
  44. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5
    .
  45. PMID 17918211
    .
  46. ^ a b c Couper, John (1837). "On the effects of black oxide of manganese when inhaled into the lungs". Br. Ann. Med. Pharm. Vital. Stat. Gen. Sci. 1: 41–42.
  47. ISBN 978-82-519-2191-6
    .
  48. ^
    doi:10.1002/ciuz.19800140502
    .
  49. ^ a b c d USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2009
  50. S2CID 129495326
    .
  51. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.05.045
    .
  52. PMID 19027306
    .
  53. OCLC 4515098. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  54. ^ "Manganese Mining in South Africa – Overview". MBendi Information Services. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  55. S2CID 139950857
    .
  56. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8
    .
  57. ^
    doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.08.010
    .
  58. ^ Chow, Norman; Nacu, Anca; Warkentin, Doug; Aksenov, Igor & Teh, Hoe (2010). "The Recovery of Manganese from low grade resources: bench scale metallurgical test program completed" (PDF). Kemetco Research Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2012.
  59. ^ "The CIA secret on the ocean floor". BBC News. 19 February 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  60. ^ "Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer". National Security Archive at George Washington University. 12 February 2010. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
  61. ^ Hein, James R. (January 2016). Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences - Manganese Nodules. Springer. pp. 408–412. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  62. ^ International Seabed Authority. "Polymetallic Nodules" (PDF). isa.org. International Seabed Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  63. ISSN 0967-0645
    .
  64. S2CID 54465407
    .
  65. ^
    S2CID 207935992
    .
  66. ISSN 0011-3891
    .
  67. ^
    S2CID 203151735
    .
  68. LCCN 2005924447
    .
  69. LCCN 2002100258
    .
  70. ISBN 978-0-87170-858-8
    .
  71. ^ Manganese USGS 2006
  72. S2CID 136550117
    .
  73. ISBN 978-1-4086-2616-0
    .
  74. ISBN 978-0-07-136076-0
    .
  75. S2CID 73176861
    .
  76. ^ "Chemical properties of 2024 aluminum allow". Metal Suppliers Online, LLC. Retrieved 30 April 2009.
  77. ^
    ISBN 978-0-87170-689-8
    .
  78. ^
    doi:10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00722-0
    .
  79. ^ "WSK1216" (PDF). vishay. Vishay Intertechnology. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
  80. ISBN 9783527303854
    .
  81. ^ "EPA Comments on the Gasoline Additive MMT". epa.gov. EPA. 5 October 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  82. ISBN 978-0-19-860457-0
    . A red brown earth containing iron and manganese oxides and darker than ochre and sienna, used to make various pigments.
  83. doi:10.1039/C6RA19584A
    .
  84. doi:10.1016/j.jlumin.2016.04.046
    .
  85. S2CID 103724310
    .
  86. doi:10.1016/j.jlumin.2017.07.061
    .
  87. doi:10.1039/c6tc02496c
    .
  88. ^ "TriGain LED phosphor system using red Mn4+-doped complex fluorides" (PDF). GE Global Research. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  89. PMID 11483555
    .
  90. ^ "Design of the Sacagawea dollar". United States Mint. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2009.
  91. ISBN 978-0-87279-620-1
    .
  92. PMID 29064667
    .
  93. S2CID 205224374
    .
  94. ISBN 978-0470860786
    .
  95. S2CID 1922613
    .
  96. ^
    PMID 25057538
    .
  97. ^ See "Manganese". Micronutrient Information Center. Oregon State University Linus Pauling Institute. 23 April 2014.
  98. ^ "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (PDF). 2017.
  99. ^ Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006
  100. ^ "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982" (PDF).
  101. ^ "Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)". Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD). Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  102. PMID 24470093
    .
  103. PMID 34481207
    .
  104. PMID 20855239
    .
  105. PMID 10382563
    .
  106. S2CID 2711273
    .
  107. PMID 25553539
    .
  108. ^ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2012) 6. Potential for human exposure, in Toxicological Profile for Manganese, Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  109. PMID 20002294
    .
  110. ^ a b "Safety and Health Topics: Manganese Compounds (as Mn)". U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
  111. ^ "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Manganese compounds and fume (as Mn)". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  112. ^ "Drinking Water Contaminants". US EPA. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
  113. ISBN 0-9626523-7-7
    .
  114. S2CID 23679769
    .
  115. ^
    PMID 16325915
    .
  116. S2CID 38040913
    .
  117. ^
    PMID 26220508
    .
  118. ^
    PMID 26154659
    .
  119. PMID 27814772
    .
  120. doi:10.4024/31LA14L.jbpc.16.03
    .
  121. ^ "Safety Data Sheet". Sigma-Aldrich. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  122. ISBN 978-1-4042-1408-8
    .
  123. ^ "Manganese Chemical Background". Metcalf Institute for Marine and Environmental Reporting University of Rhode Island. April 2006. Archived from the original on 28 August 2006. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
  124. ^ "Risk Assessment Information System Toxicity Summary for Manganese". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
  125. S2CID 206339744
    .

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manganese&oldid=1219091122"