Marathi language
Marathi | |
---|---|
Marāṭhī | |
मराठी | |
Pronunciation | [məˈɾaːʈʰiː] ⓘ |
Native to | India |
Region | Maharashtra |
Ethnicity | Marathis |
Native speakers | L1: 83 million (2011)[1] L2: 16 million (2011)[1] |
Indo-European
| |
Early form | |
Dialects |
|
| |
India
| |
Regulated by | Ministry of Marathi Language and various other institutions |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | mr |
ISO 639-2 | mar |
ISO 639-3 | Either:mar – Modern Marathiomr – Old Marathi |
omr Old Marathi | |
Glottolog | mara1378 Modern Marathioldm1244 Old Marathi |
Linguasphere | 59-AAF-o |
regions where Marathi is the language of the majority or plurality regions where Marathi is the language of a significant minority | |
Map of Marathi language in India (district-wise). Darker shades imply a greater percentage of native speakers of Marathi in each district. |
Marathi (मराठी, pronounced
Marathi distinguishes
History
Indian languages, including Marathi, that belong to the Indo-Aryan language family are derived from early forms of Prakrit. Marathi is one of several languages that further descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Further changes led to the formation of Apabhraṃśa followed by Old Marathi.[10] However, this is challenged by Bloch (1970), who states that Apabhraṃśa was formed after Marathi had already separated from the Middle Indian dialect.[11]
The earliest example of Maharashtri as a separate language dates to approximately 1st century BCE: a stone inscription found in a cave at
Yadava period
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2024) |
After 1187 CE, the use of Marathi grew substantially in the inscriptions of the
Further growth and usage of the language was because of two religious sects – the
The oldest book in prose form in Marathi, Vivēkasindhu (विवेकसिंधु), was written by
Notable examples of Marathi prose are "Līḷācarītra" (लीळाचरित्र), events and anecdotes from the miracle-filled the life of Chakradhar Swami of the Mahanubhava sect compiled by his close disciple, Mahimbhatta, in 1238. The Līḷācarītra is thought to be the first biography written in the Marathi language. Mahimbhatta's second important literary work is the Shri Govindaprabhucharitra or Ruddhipurcharitra, a biography of Shri Chakradhar Swami's guru, Shri Govind Prabhu. This was probably written in 1288. The Mahanubhava sect made Marathi a vehicle for the propagation of religion and culture. Mahanubhava literature generally comprises works that describe the incarnations of gods, the history of the sect, commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, poetical works narrating the stories of the life of Krishna and grammatical and etymological works that are deemed useful to explain the philosophy of sect.
Medieval and Deccan Sultanate period
The 13th century Varkari saint Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296) wrote a treatise in Marathi on Bhagawat Gita popularly called Dnyaneshwari and Amrutanubhava.[20][21]
Mukund Raj was a poet who lived in the 13th century and is said to be the first poet who composed in Marathi.[22] He is known for the Viveka-Siddhi and Parammruta which are metaphysical, pantheistic works connected with orthodox Vedantism.
The 16th century saint-poet Eknath (1528–1599) is well known for composing the Eknāthī Bhāgavat, a commentary on Bhagavat Purana and the devotional songs called Bharud.[23] Mukteshwar translated the Mahabharata into Marathi; Tukaram (1608–49) transformed Marathi into a rich literary language. His poetry contained his inspirations. Tukaram wrote over 3000 abhangs or devotional songs.[24]
Marathi was widely used during the Sultanate period. Although the rulers were Muslims, the local feudal landlords and the revenue collectors were Hindus and so was the majority of the population. To simplify administration and revenue collection, the sultans promoted use of Marathi in official documents. However, the Marathi language from the era is heavily
Maratha Empire
Marathi gained prominence with the rise of the
Subsequent Maratha rulers extended the empire northwards to Peshawar, eastwards to Odisha, and southwards to Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. These excursions by the Marathas helped to spread Marathi over broader geographical regions. This period also saw the use of Marathi in transactions involving land and other business. Documents from this period, therefore, give a better picture of the life of common people. There are a number of Bakhars (journals or narratives of historical events) written in Marathi and Modi script from this period.
In the 18th century during Peshwa rule, some well-known works such as Yatharthadeepika by Vaman Pandit, Naladamayanti Swayamvara by Raghunath Pandit, Pandava Pratap, Harivijay, Ramvijay by Shridhar Pandit and Mahabharata by Moropant were produced. Krishnadayarnava and Sridhar were poets during the Peshwa period. New literary forms were successfully experimented with during the period and classical styles were revived, especially the Mahakavya and Prabandha forms. The most important hagiographies of Varkari Bhakti saints were written by Mahipati in the 18th century.[33][24] Other well known literary scholars of the 17th century were Mukteshwar and Shridhar.[34] Mukteshwar was the grandson of Eknath and is the most distinguished poet in the Ovi meter. He is most known for translating the Mahabharata and the Ramayana in Marathi but only a part of the Mahabharata translation is available and the entire Ramayana translation is lost. Shridhar Kulkarni came from the Pandharpur area and his works are said to have superseded the Sanskrit epics to a certain extent. This period also saw the development of Powada (ballads sung in honour of warriors), and Lavani (romantic songs presented with dance and instruments like tabla). Major poet composers of Powada and Lavani songs of the 17th and the 18th century were Anant Phandi, Ram Joshi and Honaji Bala.[34]
British colonial period
The British colonial period starting in early 1800s saw standardisation of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary William Carey. Carey's dictionary had fewer entries and Marathi words were in Devanagari. Translations of the Bible were the first books to be printed in Marathi. These translations by William Carey, the American Marathi mission and the Scottish missionaries led to the development of a peculiar pidginised Marathi called "Missionary Marathi" in the early 1800s.[35] The most comprehensive Marathi-English dictionary was compiled by Captain James Thomas Molesworth and Major Thomas Candy in 1831. The book is still in print nearly two centuries after its publication.[36] The colonial authorities also worked on standardising Marathi under the leadership of Molesworth and Candy. They consulted Brahmins of Pune for this task and adopted the Sanskrit dominated dialect spoken by the elite in the city as the standard dialect for Marathi.[37][38][39][40]
The first Marathi translation of the New Testament was published in 1811 by the Serampore press of William Carey.[41] The first Marathi newspaper called Durpan was started by Balshastri Jambhekar in 1832.[42] Newspapers provided a platform for sharing literary views, and many books on social reforms were written. The First Marathi periodical Dirghadarshan was started in 1840.
The Marathi language flourished, as Marathi drama gained popularity. Musicals known as
The first half of the 20th century was marked by new enthusiasm in literary pursuits, and socio-political activism helped achieve major milestones in
Marathi since Indian independence
After Indian independence, Marathi was accorded the status of a scheduled language on the national level. In 1956, the then Bombay state was reorganised, which brought most Marathi and Gujarati speaking areas under one state. Further re-organization of the Bombay state on 1 May 1960, created the Marathi speaking Maharashtra and Gujarati speaking Gujarat state respectively. With state and cultural protection, Marathi made great strides by the 1990s. A literary event called Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan (All-India Marathi Literature Meet) is held every year. In addition, the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Natya Sammelan (All-India Marathi Theatre Convention) is also held annually. Both events are very popular among Marathi speakers.
Notable works in Marathi in the latter half of the 20th century include Khandekar's
In 1958 the term "
In recent decades there has been a trend among Marathi speaking parents of all social classes in major urban areas of sending their children to English medium schools. There is some concern that this may lead to the marginalisation of the language.[61]
Geographic distribution
Marathi is primarily spoken in
There were 83 million native Marathi speakers in India, according to the 2011 census, making it the third most spoken native language after Hindi and Bengali. Native Marathi speakers form 6.86% of India's population. Native speakers of Marathi formed 70.34% of the population in Maharashtra, 10.89% in Goa, 7.01% in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, 4.53% in Daman and Diu, 3.38% in Karnataka, 1.7% in Madhya Pradesh, and 1.52% in Gujarat.[6]
International
The following table is a list of the geographic distribution of Marathi speakers as it appears in the 2019 edition of
Country | Speaker population | Notes |
---|---|---|
Australia | 13,100 | 2016 census |
Canada | 8,300 | 2016 census |
Israel | 11,000 | Leclerc 2018a |
Mauritius | 17,000 | Leclerc 2018c |
New Zealand | 2,900 | 2013 census |
UK | 6,410 | 2011 census |
USA | 73,600 | 2015 census |
Status
Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and additional official language in the state of Goa.[4] In Goa, Konkani is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for any or all official purposes in case any request is received in Marathi. [5] Marathi is included among the languages that are part of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, thus granting it the status of a "scheduled language".[68] The Government of Maharashtra has applied to the Ministry of Culture to grant classical language status to Marathi.[69]
The contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi.[citation needed] Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the above-mentioned rules give special status to tatsamas, words adapted from Sanskrit. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit. This practice provides Marathi with a large corpus of Sanskrit words to cope with the demands of new technical words whenever needed.
In addition to all universities in Maharashtra,
Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of the poet Kusumagraj (Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar).[77]
Dialects
Standard Marathi is based on dialects used by academics and the print media.
Indic scholars distinguish 42 dialects of spoken Marathi. Dialects bordering other major language areas have many properties in common with those languages, further differentiating them from standard spoken Marathi. The bulk of the variation within these dialects is primarily
Varhadi
Varhadi (Varhādi) (वऱ्हाडि) or Vaidarbhi (वैदर्भि) is spoken in the Western Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. In Marathi, the
Zadi Boli
Zaadi Boli or Zhaadiboli[79] (झाडिबोलि) is spoken in Zaadipranta (a forest rich region) of far eastern Maharashtra or eastern Vidarbha or western-central Gondwana comprising Gondia, Bhandara, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli and some parts of Nagpur of Maharashtra.[80][81]
Zaadi Boli Sahitya Mandal and many literary figures are working for the conservation of this dialect of Marathi.
Southern Indian Marathi
Other
- Tanjore, Tamil Nadu
- Judæo-Marathi, spoken by the Bene Israel Jews
- East Indian Marathi, spoken by the Indian Christian East Indian ethno-religious group
Other
Phonology
Writing
The
Devanagari
Marathi is usually written in the Balbodh[86][87][88][89] version of Devanagari script, an abugida consisting of 36 consonant letters and 16 initial-vowel letters. It is written from left to right. The Devanagari alphabet used to write Marathi is slightly different from the Devanagari alphabets of Hindi and other languages: there are additional letters in the Marathi alphabet and Western punctuation is used.
William Carey in 1807 Observed that as with other parts of India, a traditional duality existed in script usage between Devanagari for religious texts, and Modi for commerce and administration.
Although in the Mahratta country the Devanagari character is well known to men of education, yet a character is current among the men of business which is much smaller, and varies considerably in form from the Nagari, though the number and power of the letters nearly correspond.[90]
Devanagari | अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऋ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अं | अः | ॲ | ऑ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Transliterated | a | ā | i | ī | u | ū | r̥ | e | ai | o | au | aṁ | aḥ | ê | ô |
IPA | [ə] | [a] | [i] | [iː] | [u] | [uː] | [ru] | [e] | [əi] | [o] | [əu] | [əm] | [əɦa] | [æ] | [ɒ] |
Vowel ligatures with Consonant क/ka
क | का | कि | की | कु | कू | कृ | के | कै | को | कौ | कं | कः | कॅ | कॉ |
ka | kā | ki | kī | ku | kū | kr̥ | ke | kai | ko | kau | kaṁ | kaḥ | kê | kô |
क् | ख् | ग् | घ् | ङ् |
k | kh | g | gh | ṅ |
च् | छ् | ज् | झ् | ञ् |
c | ch | j | jh | ñ |
ट् | ठ् | ड् | ढ् | ण् |
ṭ | ṭh | ḍ | ḍh | ṇ |
त् | थ् | द् | ध् | न् |
t | th | d | dh | n |
प् | फ् | ब् | भ् | म् |
p | ph | b | bh | m |
य् | र् | ल | व् | |
y | r | l | v | |
श | ष् | स् | ह् | ळ् |
ś | ṣ | s | h | ḷ |
क्ष् | ज्ञ् | |||
kṣ | jñ |
It is written from left to right. Devanagari used to write Marathi is slightly different from that of Hindi or other languages. It uses additional vowels and consonants that are not found in other languages that also use Devanagari.
The Modi alphabet
From the thirteenth century until 1950, Marathi, especially for business use, was written in the
Consonant clusters in Devanagari
In Devanagari, consonant letters by default come with an inherent schwa. Therefore, तयाचे will be 'təyāche', not 'tyāche'. To form 'tyāche', you will have to write it as त् + याचे, giving त्याचे.
When two or more consecutive consonants are followed by a vowel then a jodakshar (consonant cluster) is formed. Some examples of consonant clusters are shown below:
- त्याचे – tyāche – "his"
- प्रस्ताव – prastāva – "proposal"
- विद्या – vidyā – "knowledge"
- म्यान – myān – "Sheath/scabbard"
- त्वरा – tvarā – "immediate/Quick"
- महत्त्व – mahattva – "importance"
- फक्त – phakta – "only"
- बाहुल्या – bāhulyā – "dolls"
- कण्हेरी – kaṇherī – "oleander" (known for its flowers)
- न्हाणे – nhāṇe – "bathing"
- म्हणून – mhaṇūna – "therefore"
- तऱ्हा – taṟhā – "different way of behaving"
- कोल्हा – kolhā – "fox"
- केव्हा – kevhā – "when"
In writing, Marathi has a few digraphs that are rarely seen in the world's languages, including those denoting the so-called "nasal aspirates" (ṇh (ण्ह), nh (न्ह) and mh (म्ह)) and liquid aspirates (rh, ṟh, lh (ल्ह), and vh व्ह). Some examples are given above.
Eyelash reph/raphar
The eyelash reph/raphar (रेफ/ रफार) (र्) exists in Marathi as well as Nepali. The eyelash reph/raphar (र्) is produced in Unicode by the sequence [ra र ] + [virāma ्] + [ZWJ] and [rra ऱ ]+ [virāma ्] + [ZWJ].[92] In Marathi, when 'र' is the first consonant of a consonant cluster and occurs at the beginning of a syllable, it is written as an eyelash reph/raphar.[93]
Examples |
---|
तर्हा |
वाऱ्याचा |
ऱ्हास |
ऱ्हस्व |
सुऱ्या |
दोऱ्या |
Minimal pairs[94]
Using the (Simple) Reph/Raphar | Using the Eyelash Reph/Raphar |
---|---|
आचार्यास (to the teacher) | आचार्यास (to the cook) |
दर्या (ocean) | दर्या (valleys) |
Braille
In February 2008, Swagat Thorat published India's first Braille newspaper, the Marathi Sparshdnyan, a news, politics and current affairs fort nightly magazine.[95]
Grammar
Marathi grammar shares similarities with other modern Indo-Aryan languages. Jain Acharya Hemachandra is the grammarian of Maharashtri Prakrit. The first modern book exclusively concerning Marathi grammar was printed in 1805 by William Carey.
Marathi employs
Sharing of linguistic resources with other languages
Marathi is primarily influenced by
Morphology and etymology
Spoken Marathi contains a high number of Sanskrit-derived (tatsama) words. [citation needed] Such words are for example nantar (from nantara or after), pūrṇa (pūrṇa or complete, full, or full measure of something), ola (ola or damp), kāraṇ (kāraṇa or cause), puṣkaḷ (puṣkala or much, many), satat (satata or always), vichitra (vichitra or strange), svatah (svatah or himself/herself), prayatna (prayatna or effort, attempt), bhītī (from bhīti, or fear) and bhāṇḍe (bhāṇḍa or vessel for cooking or storing food). Other words ("tadbhavas") have undergone phonological changes from their Sanskrit roots, for example dār (dwāra or door), ghar (gṛha or house), vāgh (vyāghra or tiger), paḷaṇe (palāyate or to run away), kiti (kati or how many) have undergone more modification. Examples of words borrowed from other Indian and foreign languages include:
- Hawā: "air" directly borrowed from Arabichawa
- Jamin: "land" borrowed from Persian zamin
- Kaydā: "law" borrowed from Arabicqaeda
- Jāhirāt: "advertisement" is derived from Arabic zaahiraat
- Marjī: "wish" is derived from Persian marzi
- Shiphāras: "recommendation" is derived from Persian sefaresh
- Hajērī: "attendance" from Urdu haziri
- Aṇṇā: "father", "grandfather" or "elder brother" borrowed from Dravidian languages
- Undir: "rat" borrowed from Munda languages
A lot of English words are commonly used in conversation and are considered to be assimilated into the Marathi vocabulary. These include words like "pen" (पेन, pen) and "shirt" (शर्ट, sharṭa) whose native Marathi counterparts are lekhaṇī (लेखणी) and sadarā (सदरा) respectively.
Compounds
Marathi uses many morphological processes to join words together, forming compounds. For example, ati + uttam gives the word atyuttam, miith-bhaakar ("salt-bread"), udyog-patii ("businessman"), ashṭa-bhujaa ("eight-hands", name of a Hindu goddess).
Counting
Like many other languages, Marathi uses distinct names for the numbers 1 to 20 and each multiple of 10, and composite ones for those greater than 20.
As with other Indic languages, there are distinct names for the fractions 1⁄4, 1⁄2, and 3⁄4. They are pāva, ardhā, and pāuṇa, respectively. For most fractions greater than 1, the prefixes savvā-, sāḍē-, pāvaṇe- are used. There are special names for 3⁄2 (dīḍ), 5⁄2 (aḍīch), and 7⁄2 (aut).
Powers of ten are denoted by separate specific words as depicted in the table below.
Number power to 10 | Marathi Number name[102][103] | In Devanagari |
---|---|---|
100 | Eka, Ekaka | एक/एकक |
101 | Daha, Dashaka | दहा/दशक |
102 | Shambhara, Shataka | शंभर/शतक |
103 | Hajara, Sahasra, | हजार/सहस्र |
104 | Dasha Hajara, Dasha Sahasra | दशहजार/दशसहस्र |
105 | Lakha, Laksha | लाख/लक्ष |
106 | Daha Lakha, Dasha Laksha | दहा लाख (दशलक्ष) |
107 | Koti | कोटी |
108 | Dasha Koti | दशकोटी |
109 | Abja, Arbuda | अब्ज/अर्बुद |
1010 | Dasha-Abja | दशाब्ज |
1011 | Vrunda | वृंद |
1012 | Kharva (Kharab) | खर्व |
1013 | Nikharva | निखर्व |
1014 | Sashastra | सशस्त्र |
1015 | Mahapadma, Padma | महापद्म/पद्म |
1016 | Kamala | कमळ |
1017 | Shanku, Shankha | शंकू/शंक |
1017 | Skanda | स्कंद |
1018 | Suvachya | सुवाच्य |
1019 | Jaladhi, Samudra | जलधी/समुद्र |
1020 | Krutya | कृत्य |
1021 | Antya | अंत्य |
1022 | Ajanma | आजन्म |
1023 | Madhya | मध्य |
1024 | Lakshmi | लक्ष्मी |
1025 | Parardha | परार्ध |
A positive integer is read by breaking it up from the tens digit leftwards, into parts each containing two digits, the only exception being the hundreds place containing only one digit instead of two. For example, 1,234,567 is written as 12,34,567 and read as 12 lakh 34 Hazara 5 she 67 (१२ लाख ३४ हजार ५ शे ६७).
Every two-digit number after 18 (11 to 18 are predefined) is read backward. For example, 21 is read एक-वीस (1-twenty). Also, a two digit number that ends with a 9 is considered to be the next tens place minus one. For example, 29 is एकोणतीस (एक-उणे-तीस) (thirty minus one). Two digit numbers used before Hazara are written in the same way.
Marathi on computers and the Internet
Shrilipee, Shivaji, kothare 2,4,6,
Earlier Marathi suffered from weak support by computer operating systems and Internet services, as have other Indian languages. But recently, with the introduction of language localisation projects and new technologies, various software and Internet applications have been introduced. Marathi typing software is widely used and display interface packages are now available on Windows, Linux and macOS. Many Marathi websites, including Marathi newspapers, have become popular especially with Maharashtrians outside India. Online projects such as the Marathi language Wikipedia, with 76,000+ articles, the Marathi blogroll, and Marathi blogs have gained immense popularity.[105]
Natural language processing for Marathi
More recent attention has focused on developing
The HASOC2021 dataset was proposed for conducting a
Corpus Development in Marathi
Text Corpus and Corpus Linguistics show how texts, sentences, or words from written or spoken language have changed over time or how they have been used in an organised way. The Volume VII: 'Indo-Aryan Languages (Southern Group) of the 'Linguistic Survey of India' by George Abraham Grierson describes first systematic and structured attempt to create documentation of Marathi language data.
Corpora in Marathi
Attempts have been made to create Corpus of Marathi. One of the first efforts to make a corpus with Indian text was the Kolhapur Corpus of Indian English[112] (Shastri, 1986). The corpus was developed at the University in Maharastra, but Indian English was studied. The IIT Bombay WordNet[113] (IndoWordNet; Bhattacharya, 2010) project in Indian languages includes Marathi. WordNet do not give word counts for further useful data analysis. The raw text based corpus in Marathi[114] (Ramamoorthy et al., 2019a) is based on sampled pages from different select books. This work is carried out at Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore. A corpus-based linguistic study at the University of Mumbai explores the language contact between English and Marathi by compiling and analyzing an over-arching corpus of English loan-words in Marathi existing between the years 2001 and 2020. The study also investigates the attitudes of Marathi speakers towards English loan-words in contemporary Marathi, attempting to understand their motivations for borrowing English words (Doibale, 2022).[115]
The work at University of Mumbai by Belhekar and Bhargava (2023)[116] provided the first Marathi word count collection (Marathi WordCorp). The bag-of-words (BoW) model was used to make 1-gram (single-word) Marathi WordCorp. They used more than 700 complete works of literature.
The Google Books Ngram Viewer (Michel et al., 2011)[117] is a relatively new and advanced method that shows how the frequency of n-grams has changed over a specific period. There is no database of Indian languages in the Google Books Ngram viewer. The Indian Languages Word Corpus[118] (ILWC) WebApp, which was made by Belhekar and Bhargava,[116] shows how often words are used by decade from before 1920 to 2020. The limitation with the method is that it only gives researchers the raw OCR data to "combine and collapse frequencies of correctly and incorrectly recognised words" (p. 2).[116]
Statistical Models for Marathi Corpora
Attempts to evaluate statistical models for Marathi language Corpuses and text-collections have been carried out. For the Marathi corpus (Marathi WordCorp), the y-intercept of Zipf's law is reported as 12.49, and the coefficient is 0.89 and these numbers show that Zipf's law is applicable for Marathi language.[116] The coefficients show that the number of words and texts used in the corpus metadata is enough. Heaps' law intercept for the Marathi word corpora is 2.48, and the coefficient is 0.73.[116] The coefficient values show that there are more unique words in Marathi writings than would be expected. The higher number of unique words could be due to the number of alphabets (36 consonant letters and 16 initial-vowel letters, with each consonant taking 14 forms with vowel pairs), the orthographic features of the Devanagari script (for example, the same word can be written in different ways), the use of consonant clusters (jodakshar), the number of suffixes a word can have, etc.
Marathi Language Day
Marathi Language Day (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस transl. Marathi Din/Marathi Diwas is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Goa. This day is regulated by the Ministry of Marathi Language. It is celebrated on the Birthday of eminent Marathi Poet V.V. Shirwadkar, popularly known as Kusumagraj.[119][120]
Essay competitions and seminars are arranged in schools and colleges, and government officials are asked to conduct various events.[121]
See also
References
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Old Marathi at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024) - ^ "Know Your City: The Modi script, using which Maratha empire would conduct business". 5 February 2022.
- ^ "'Other' Modi wave: How 700-year Marathi script is making a comeback | Mumbai News - Times of India". The Times of India. 7 July 2019.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Dhongde, Ramesh Vaman; Wali, Kashi (2009). Marathi. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co. ISBN 978-90-272-38139.
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External links
- Marathi language at Curlie
- Dictionaries
- Molesworth, J. T. (James Thomas). A dictionary, Marathi, and English. 2d ed., rev. and all. Bombay: Printed for government at the Bombay Education Society's press, 1857.
- Vaze, Shridhar Ganesh. The Aryabhusan school dictionary, Marathi-English. Poona: Arya-Bhushan Press, 1911.
- Tulpule, Shankar Gopal and Anne Feldhaus. A dictionary of old Marathi. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 1999.