Marcel Bigeard
Marcel Bigeard | |
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Général de corps d'armée | |
Unit | 23rd Fortress Infantry Regiment 23e RIF 79th Fortress Infantry Regiment 79e RIF 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment 23e RIC 10th Parachute Division |
Commands held |
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Battles/wars |
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Awards | Deputy |
Marcel Bigeard (February 14, 1916 – June 18, 2010), personal radio call-sign "Bruno", was a French military officer and politician who fought in
After leaving the military, Bigeard embarked on a political career serving as deputy of Meurthe-et-Moselle from 1978 to 1988 and became a prolific author. His final years were marked by a controversy surrounding allegations that he had overseen torture during the Algerian conflict; he denied the allegations of personal involvement, though defended the use of torture during the war as a necessary evil.
Early life
Marcel Bigeard was born in Toul,[1]: 167 Meurthe-et-Moselle on February 14, 1916, the son of Charles Bigeard (1880–1948), a railway worker, and Sophie Bigeard (1880–1964), a domineering housewife. Bigeard's working-class family were staunchly patriotic, and believed France was the greatest nation in the world; Bigeard's often stated belief that France was worth fighting for stemmed from this upbringing.[2] He also had an older sister, Charlotte Bigeard, four years his senior. Lorraine instilled a strong patriotism in him and his mother a will to win; those two would remain his strongest driving forces. At fourteen, Bigeard quit school to help his parents financially by taking a position in the local Société Générale bank, where he did well.[3]
Pre-war career
Following a 6-year career in Société générale, Marcel Bigeard conducted his military service in France at Haguenau at the corps of the 23rd Fortress Infantry Regiment (French: 23e Régiment d'Infanterie de Forteresse).[4] Incorporated in the regiment as a soldat de deuxième classe in September 1936, caporal-chef, he was relieved of duty and military obligations with the rank of reserve sergent in September 1938.
World War II
Six months following his relief of duty, in anticipation of imminent conflict, he was recalled on March 22, 1939, to duty at the corps of the 23rd Fortress Infantry Regiment and promoted to the rank of sergent.
In September 1939, with the arrival of the reserves, the battalions of the 23rd Fortress Infantry Regiment (23e RIF), served each in a chain link to form new Fortress infantry regiments of « mobilization »,[5] Bigeard was assigned to the 79th Fortress Infantry Regiment (French: 79e Régiment d'Infanterie de Forteresse) in the under fortified sector of Hoffen and the Maginot Line.[6]: 58 Volunteer for the franc corps, he led a combat group at Trimbach in Alsace and became quickly a sergent-chef then adjudant (warrant officer) at the age of 24.
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Insignia of 23e RIF
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Insignia of 79e RIF
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Insignia of 23e RIC
On June 25, 1940, he was captured (post-armistice) and made prisoner of war, spending 18 months in captivity in a stalag (German POW camp). Following his third attempt to escape on November 11, 1941,[7] he managed to make his way to the unoccupied zone in France, and from there, he went to Senegal.[2]
Volunteering for the French Occidental Africa (French: Afrique-Occidentale française, AOF), he was assigned in February 1942 to a camp in Senegal, in a Senegalese Tirailleurs Regiment of the Armistice Army. Promoted to sous-lieutenant in October 1943, he was directed with his regiment to Morocco.
Recruited as a paratrooper of the
At the beginning of 1945, Bigeard created and managed during a scholastic semester, the regional cadres school of
Indochina
Bigeard was first sent to
In the middle of 1945, Captain Bigeard was entrusted with the command of the 6th company of the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment (French: 23e Régiment d'Infanterie Coloniale, 23e RIC).[10] Designated to participate to the expeditionary corps in Indochina, the regiment disembarked in Saigon on October 25, 1945, and served until March 1946 in various sectors of operations. During this epoque, the "Bruno" surname started to circulate.[11]
On March 8, 1946, a detachment of the
On July 1, 1946, Bigeard left the 23e RIC and formed south-east of Dien Bien Phu, a unit constituted of four commandos of 25 volunteers at the corps of the autonomous Thai Battalion.[6]: 173 At the return of his men in metropole, mid-October 1946, he assumed command of the 3rd company, constituted of almost 40 men. He then left Indochina on September 17, 1947, and reached France three days later.[8]: 72
Volunteering for another tour in Indochina, Bigeard was assigned on February 1, 1948, to the 3rd Colonial Parachute Commando Battalion 3e BCCP.
On October 1, 1949, Bigeard set on foot the 3rd
In the spring of 1951, Bigeard was assigned at Vannes, the colonial demi-brigade of colonel Jean Gilles and was confined with a passing battalion. In September 1951, he was assigned the command of the 6th Colonial Parachute Battalion 6e BPC at Saint-Brieuc. He was ranked then as a Chef de battaillon in January 1952.
On July 28, 1952, Bigeard, at the head of the 6th Colonial Parachute Battalion 6e BPC, disembarked at Haiphong for a third deployment in Indochina. Over half of Bigeard's men were Vietnamese while the other half were French, thus requiring considerable leadership on his part to tie together a mixed unit to allow it to function effectively.[12] On October 16, 1952, the battalion was parachuted on Tu Lê.[6]: 273 and confronted during eight days the opposing regimental divisions. During the Battle of Tu Lê, the battalion was encircled by an entire Vietnamese division, being outnumbered ten to one.[12] In the course of extremely fierce fighting, Bigeard fought off the attempts of the Vietnamese to destroy his unit and led his men into a successful break-out into the jungle marching for days and carrying all of their wounded until finally reaching a French fort.[12] The 6e BPC distinguished savoir-faire again during the Battle of Nà Sản, during an operation on Lang Song July 17, 1953, and during Operation Castor on Dien Bien Phu November 20, 1953.
Bigeard was a keen self-publicist, welcoming journalists among his troops, which assisted his cause by getting the materials needed to help him succeed. His units were noted for their dedication to physical fitness above the normal requirements by the army.[1]: 168 This unique style included creating the famous 'casquette Bigeard' cap from the 'excess' material of the long shorts in the standard uniform.[1]: 168 A fitness fanatic known for his austere lifestyle and working out several hours every day, Bigeard was famous for being one of the fittest men in the entire French Army.[12] He exuded a peculiar sort of French machismo; he always led from the front while refusing to carry a weapon, never asked his men to do anything that he would not do himself, and was well known for his saying: "It is possible, it will be done. And if it is impossible, it will still be done".[12] A colorful man, Bigeard was extremely popular with the troops under his command for his courage and for always leading from the front, but his contempt for superior officers who did not suffer the same hardships as ordinary soldiers, the "generals with middle-aged spread" as Bigeard called them, made for tense relations with his commanding officers.[2] He participated in many operations including a combat drop on Tu Lê in November 1952. It was also in 1952 that he fully qualified to be a flying pilot of a military transport helicopter so as to be fully capable of commanding a paratrooper battalion.[9]: 551 An extremely able military tactician, Bigeard was called by the British military historian Martin Windrow the "intuitive master of terrain, who could conduct a battle by map and radio like the conductor of an orchestra".[2]
On November 20, 1953, Bigeard and his unit took part in
On December 31, 1953, Bigeard took command of the Airborne Groupment[6]: 330 constituted of the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment 1er RCP and the 6e BPC, intervening to intercept opposing divisions.
Parachuted on March 16, 1954, while the outcome of Dien Bien Phu was being sealed, Commandant Bigeard was promoted to lieutenant-colonel (along with other commanders) during ongoing fighting, making of him a recognized figure while leading his battalion on strongpoints Éliane 1 and 2.[1]: 168 Bigeard called Dien Bien Phu a "jungle Verdun", the final and most intense battle in Vietnam as the Vietnamese used their Soviet-built artillery on the hills above to rain heavy fire on the French positions; every day the Vietnamese staged huge "human wave" attacks, sending thousand of infantrymen to try to storm the French lines, only to be repulsed time after time.[12] Bigeard's paras were engaged in the heaviest fighting at Dien Bien Phu, and of his 800 men, only forty had not been killed by the end of the battle.[12]
Bigeard was made a prisoner of war on May 7, 1954, during the fall of the camp. After the battle, the Vietnamese forced the French prisoners on a death march to POW camps, making them march through a hot, humid jungle while refusing to provide food, water or medicine.[12] It was a tribute to Bigeard's intense physical fitness regime that he emerged from Vietnamese captivity in relatively good health.[12] He was liberated four months later, leaving Indochina for good on September 25, 1954. Upon returning to France, Bigeard told the French press he "would do better the next time".[12]
Algerian War
In 1956, Bigeard was sent to the bled (countryside) of Algeria to hunt down the FLN using helicopters to rapidly deploy his men.[12] On June 5, 1956, during a skirmish, Bigeard took a bullet to his chest that narrowly missed his heart.[12] On September 5, 1956, Bigeard was the victim of an assassination attempt by the FLN, being shot in the chest twice by FLN assassins while jogging alone by the Mediterranean.[12] The American pundit Max Boot wrote it was a tribute to Bigeard's toughness and the robust state of his health that he could take three bullets in his chest over the course of four months in 1956 and still be back to duty shortly afterwards.[12]
At the beginning of 1956, the regiment participated at the corps of the elite
In March 1957, the 3e RPC made way south of Blida and participated in numerous operations in Atlas and Agounnenda. The regiment relieved the
Capture of M'Hidi
Torture was freely used to break suspected FLN members, with a particular favorite tactic being the gégène, where wires from a small generator were attached to the genitals and intense electrical currents were sent through either the penis or the vagina until the suspect started to provide information.[12] Using information gained through such tactics as the gégène, those named by the suspect were then arrested and the whole process repeated.[12] Over the course of the Battle of Algiers, the 10th Parachute Division arrested about 24,000 Muslims of whom about 4,000 "disappeared", as those who were murdered were euphemistically described.[12] During the Battle of Algiers, Bigeard captured Larbi Ben M'hidi, one of the FLN's top leaders, but Bigeard refused to torture him on the grounds that M'hidi was a warrior who deserved respect.[12] During the course of a dinner with his enemy, Bigeard asked M'hidi if he was ashamed that he had bombs planted in baskets at restaurants and cafes designed to kill the patrons, saying "Aren't you ashamed to place bombs in the baskets of your women?", leading to the reply "Give me your planes. I'll give you my baskets."[12]
When Massu ordered M'hidi executed, Bigeard declined the order, and instead Major Paul Aussaresses was sent to take M'hidi away to hang him to "make it look like suicide."[12] As Aussaresses was taking M'hidi out to the countryside to hang him, Bigeard had his troops give the doomed M'hidi full military honors as he was led away.[12]
Promotion to colonel
After the initial apparent victory in Algiers, in April 1957 Bigeard moved the 3e RPC back into the Atlas Mountains in pursuit of FLN groups in that province. In May he was in the area near Agounennda to ambush a large force of about 300 djounoud[8]: 295 of the FLN group Wilaya 4. This group had already attacked an Algerian Battalion on May 21 causing heavy casualties. From a 'cold' start Bigeard estimated the attacking group's probable route of withdrawal and laid a wide ambush along a valley of 100 km². The ensuing battle and followup lasted from May 23 to 26, 1957, but resulted in eight paras killed for 96 enemy dead, twelve prisoners and five captives released. For this exemplary operation he was nicknamed "Seigneur de l'Atlas" ("Lord of the Atlas mountains") by his boss General Massu.
Promoted to colonel in January 1958, Bigeard directed the 3e RPC with others to the Battle of the Frontiers from January to June. After other urban, desert and mountain operations, Bigeard was replaced as the commander of 3e RPC in March 1958 by Roger Trinquier. In 1958, Time magazine wrote of Bigard that he was "a martinet, but the idol of his men, who made them shave every day, no matter where they were, and doled out raw onions instead of the traditional wine ration because 'wine reduces stamina'."[2] The senior officers of the French Army, most of whom had graduated from Saint-Cyr, made no secret of their dislike for Bigeard, whom they viewed as a "jumped-up ranker" who disregarded orders if he thought them to be stupid.[2] As a punishment, Bigeard was removed from his front-line duties in Algeria and sent to Paris to train officers in "revolutionary warfare".[2]
Accordingly, Bigeard went back to Paris where the minister of the armies, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, asked him to establish a center of instruction for cadres that opened at the end of April near Philippeville. The École Jeanne d'Arc in Philippeville (modern day Skikda) was to provide field officers with a one-month training course in counter-insurgency techniques. Bigeard created the school and was placed in charge. He did not take any part in the events of May 13, 1958.
After fourth months in Toul, Bigeard went back to Algeria, taking command of a sector in Saida and Oranie on January 25, 1959. Bigeard became adjutant to General Ducournau at the 25e DP[6]: 486 Under his disposition were around 5,000 men, formed from the 8th Infantry Regiment, the 14th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment, the 23rd Moroccan Spahis Regiment 23e RSM, one group of DCA, one artillery regiment, and two mobile groups.[8]: 370
Following a meeting with
Military career after 1960
From July 1960 to January 1963, Bigeard took command of the 6th Colonial Infantry Outremer Regiment 6e RIAOM at Bouar in the Central African Republic.
Following a brief passage by the
Following an encounter with
In July 1970, Bigeard was back in Paris and was assigned for ten months at the
Promotion to general
Following his return to France, he became from September 1973 to February 1974, the second adjoint to the Military governor of Paris. Promoted général de corps d'armée on March 1, 1974, he assumed command of the 4th Military Region, comprising 40,000 men out of which 10,000 were paratroopers.[15]: 74
He met on January 30, 1975,
Political career
Following a brief retirement at Toul, he presented himself to the elections and became a deputy of Meurthe-et-Moselle from 1978 to 1981.[15]: 143 During this first legislation, he would also be assigned the function tenure of président de la commission de défense. He was reelected to the first round in June 1981 then to the proportionnelle in March 1986.[15]: 212 In 1988, following the dissolution of the assembly, he retired.[15]: 243 During his retirement, he spent much of his time writing his memoirs and wrote books on his military career and thoughts on the evolution of France.
In his last book, Mon dernier round, published in 2009, Bigeard strongly denounced de Gaulle for his treatment of the
Torture accusations
In his later life, Bigeard was drawn into the controversy over the use of
Several sources suggest that Bigeard had been more involved in torture and killings than he admitted. Aussaresses stated that the corpses of Algerians executed by French forces and dropped by aircraft into the sea had been dubbed crevettes de Bigeard ("Bigeard's shrimp").[18] However there is no evidence that Bigeard authorised or participated in such practices, while Aussaresses would later serve as an advisor to the regimes of Augusto Pinochet and Jorge Rafael Videla during Operation Condor where "death flights" were used to dispose of dissidents.
In June 2000 Louisette Ighilahriz, a writer and member of the FLN, publicly alleged that Bigeard and Massu had been present when she was tortured and raped at a military prison from late September to December 1957.[19]: 233 Ighilahriz had come forward with her story as she wanted to thank one "Richaud", an Army doctor at the prison for saving her life, saying that Richaud was a most gentle man who always treated her injuries and saved her life.[19]: 219–39 Bigeard rejected Ighilarhiz's claims that she was tortured and raped in his presence, saying that Ighilarhiz's story was a "tissue of lies" designed to "destroy all that is decent in France", and going to say this "Richaud" had never existed.,[19]: 234 Bigeard was, however, contradicted by Massu, who confirmed the existence of "Richaud", saying that Ighilahriz was referring to Dr. François Richaud, who had been the doctor stationed at the prison in 1957.[19]: 219–39 Bigeard stated that Ighilahriz's claim she had been tortured by him was part of a campaign waged by the same left-wing intellectuals whom Bigeard blamed for undermining the French will to win in Algeria.[2] Bigeard denied having engaged in torture himself, but maintained that the use of torture against the FLN had been a "necessary evil".[2] Canadian historian Barnett Singer claims that Ighilarhiz claims were "full of fabrications", that torture was "never [Bigeard's] modus operandi" and Bigeard was on operations away from Algiers at the relevant time.[16]
Death
Bigeard died on June 18, 2010, at his home in Toul.
Funeral
His funeral procession was held at the Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Toul on June 21, in presence of former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Minister of Defense Hervé Morin.[20] Full military honours were accorded to Bigeard on June 22 at Les Invalides by the country's prime minister, François Fillon.[21] In an obituary, the American historian Max Boot wrote that Bigeard's life disproved the popular canard in the English-speaking world that the French are soft and cowardly soldiers, the so-called "cheese-eating surrender monkeys", writing that Bigeard was the "consummate warrior" and one of "the great soldiers of the 20th century".[12]
Posthumous controversy
Allegations about Bigeard's actions during the Algerian conflict led to significant public controversy surrounding the general's being laid to rest. Bigeard had originally expressed a desire that his ashes should be scattered at Dien Bien Phu.[22] However, the Vietnamese government refused to allow this, as it did not wish to set a precedent. Attempts by the French government to inter him in Les Invalides were "reversed because of public outrage" surrounding allegations of torture,[23] most prominently a petition in the left-wing newspaper Libération that called him an "unscrupulous adventurer" who used "heinous methods".[24] This led to a lengthy controversy over where to bury Bigeard, which was ended in September 2012 when Minister of Defense Jean-Yves Le Drian decided to inter him at the Mémorial des guerres en Indochine in Fréjus. Le Drian's attendance of the burial ceremony in November was criticized by the French Human Rights League, which suggested that praise for Bigeard "would amount to elevating torture to a military discipline worthy of being honoured by the state." However the decision was welcomed by French veterans organizations.[23]
Writing in the French Studies Bulletin, in 2021, Christopher Hogg concluded Bigeard and his fellow officers had used torture on a large scale, but doing so had won France a battle:[25]
"Bigeard gave France a victory in the Battle of Algiers in 1956. But he had to use torture to do it. Even though torture was used on an industrial scale by Bigeard and his fellow colonels, the guilt for what he had done was never quite pinned on him at the time."
Honors and awards
Decorations
French Honors
- Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur
- Croix de Guerre 1939–1945with 6 citations out of which 3 at the orders of the armed forces (3 palms).
- Croix de guerre des Théatres d'Opérations Exterieureswith 17 citations out of which 12 at the orders of the armed forces.
- Croix de la Valeur Militairewith 4 citations at the orders of the armed forces.
- Médaille de la Résistancedecree of (6/09/1945)
- Escapees' Medal
- Colonial Medal with "Extrême-Orient" (Far East) clasp
- Commemorative Medal of the 1939–1945 War
- Indochina Campaign commemorative medal
- Algeria Commemorative Medal
- Medaille des blesséswith 5 stars (5 wounds)
- Honorary Légionnaire de 1ère classe of the Foreign Legion in 1954[9]: 551
Foreign Honors
- Distinguished Service Order (UK)
- Commander of the Legion of Merit (US)
- Grand Officer of the National Order of Merit of Senegal (Grand officier du Mérite Sénégalais)
- Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of Togo (Grand officier du Ordre national du Mérite togolais)
- Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Comoros (Grand officier du Mérite Comorien)
- Grand Officer of the Order of King Abdulaziz Al Saud (Grand officier du mérite Saoudite)
- Officer of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol (Officier de Ordre du Million d'Eléphants et Parasol Blanc du Laos)
- Commander of the National Order of Merit of Mauritania (Commandeur de l'ordre du Mérite national mauritanien)
- Commander of the Order of Central African Merit (Commandeur du Mérite centrafricain)
- Commander of the Order of Civil Merit of the Tai Federation (Commandeur fédération pays Thaï)
- Commander of the Order of the Dragon of Annam(Commandeur du Dragon d'Annam)
General Bigeard was awarded 27 citations, including 19 palms and 8 stars.
Legacy
Posthumous homages
The 50th graduating class of the École militaire interarmes chose the promotion Général Bigeard. The song of the promotion recalls the arms celebration of Général Bigeard.[26] A 3.65 m stele representing Général Bigeard in profile was inaugurated on June 29, 2012, at the 3 RPIMa base at Quartier Laperrine in Carcassonne. Bigeard served as an inspiration for Colonel Raspeguy in Lost Command and Jean Mathieu in The Battle of Algiers.[27]
Homages in France
In France, several avenues, places and roads bear his name:
- Avenue du Général Bigeard à Toul (Meurthe-et-Moselle)
- Rond-Point du Général Bigeard à Aix-en-Provence (Bouches-du-Rhône)
- Place du Général Marcel Bigeard à Tellancourt (Meurthe-et-Moselle)
- Square Marcel Bigeard à Aix-les-Bains (Savoie)
- Rue du général Marcel Bigeard à Briey (Meurthe-et-Moselle).
- Rue du général Marcel Bigeard à Villeneuve-Loubet (Alpes-Maritimes)
- Rue du Général Bigeard à Trimbach (Bas-Rhin)
- Rue du Général Bigeard à Lexy (Meurthe-et-Moselle)
- Rond-Point du Général Bigeard à Lagord (Charente-Maritime)
- Rond-Point Général Marcel Bigeard à Banyuls-sur-Mer (Pyrénées-Orientales)
- Rue Marcel Bigeard à Scionzier (Haute-Savoie)
- Rond-Point du Général Bigeard à La Rochelle
Works
During his career Bigeard authored or co-authored a number of books which also featured homages to adversaries. In retirement he continued to write, his last work was published in 2010, a few months after he died.
- Le Manuel de l’officier de renseignement (The Intelligence Officer's Handbook)
- Contre guérilla (Counter guerilla), 1957
- Aucune bête au monde..., Pensée Moderne, 1959
- Piste sans fin (English: Tracks without end), Pensée Moderne, 1963
- Pour une parcelle de gloire (English: For a piece of glory), Plon, 1975
- Ma Guerre d'Indochine (English: My Indochina War), Hachette, 1994
- Ma Guerre d'Algérie (English: My Algerian War), Editions du Rocher, 1995
- De la brousse à la jungle, Hachette-Carrère, 1994
- France, réveille-toi! (English: France, awake!), Editions n°1, 1997 ISBN 2-86391-797-8
- Lettres d'Indochine (English: Letters from Indochina), Editions n°1, 1998–1999 (2 Volumes)
- Le siècle des héros (English: The Century of the Heroes), Editions n°1, 2000 ISBN 2-86391-948-2
- Crier ma vérité, Editions du Rocher, 2002
- Paroles d'Indochine (English: Words of Indochina), Editions du Rocher, 2004
- J'ai mal à la France (English: My France is sore), Edition du Polygone, 2006
- Adieu ma France (English: Good-bye my France), Editions du Rocher, 2006 ISBN 2-268-05696-1
- Mon dernier round (English: My last show), Editions du Rocher, 2009 ISBN 2-268-06673-8
- Ma vie pour la France (English: My life for France), Editions du Rocher, 2010 ISBN 2-268-06435-2
- Ma Guerre d'Indochine, documentaire de 52 minutes Réalisation: Jean-Claude Criton – Production L. Salles/Carrère (1994)
- Ma Guerre d'Algérie, documentaire de 52 minutes Réalisation: Jean-Claude Criton – Production L. Salles/Carrère (1994)
- Portrait de Bigeard, documentaire de 52 minutes Réalisation: Jean-Claude Criton – Production L. Salles/Carrère (1994)
See also
- Ferdinand Foch
- Jean de Lattre de Tassigny
- List of French paratrooper units
- Pierre Segretain
- Pierre Jeanpierre
- Rémy Raffalli
- Paul Arnaud de Foïard
- Hélie de Saint Marc
- Bigeard cap – a French Army hat whose invention is attributed to Marcel Bigeard
References
- ^ ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "General Marcel Bigeard". The Daily Telegraph. June 20, 2010. Retrieved October 25, 2016.
- ISBN 0-299-19904-5.
- ^ « Le général Bigeard passe l’arme à gauche », Libération (journal), 19 juin 2010
- ^ in reference to the 22e RIF, 23e RIF, 68e RIF and 79e RIF
- ^ ISBN 2-7242-4074-X.
- ^ Les dates des deux autres tentatives d'évasion sont le 14 juillet et le 22 septembre 1941
- ^ ISBN 9782259005715.
- ^ ISBN 0-297-84671-X.
- ^ 6th company, 2nd battalion of the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment
- ^ Bruno Archived June 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Boot, Max (July 5, 2010). "The Consummate Warrior Marcel Bigeard, 1916–2010". The Weekly Standard. Archived from the original on March 17, 2022. Retrieved October 25, 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-306-81157-9.
- ^ ISBN 9780192803504.
- ^ ISBN 9782012370173.
- ^ ISBN 9781442221659.
- ^ Guerre d'Algérie : le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture, Le Monde, July 4, 2000 (in French)
- ISBN 9780803280281.
- ^ a b c d William Cohen (Summer 2002). "The Algerian War, the French State and Official Memory". Réflexions Historiques. 28 (2).
- ^ Agence France-Presse, « Obsèques du général Bigeard lundi à Toul », Le Point, 19 juin 2010.
- ^ "Adieu mon general! Honneurs militaires au general Bigeard". Armee de Terre. July 8, 2010.
- ^ "Les cendres du général Bigeard transférées au mémorial d'Indochine". Liberation. November 20, 2012. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
- ^ a b Bedford, Julian (November 20, 2012). "French General Bigeard laid to rest after posthumous battle". BBC.
- France24.
- ^ Hogg, Christopher. "The Unquiet Grave—What an Old Soldier’s Death Tells us about Race in France." French Studies Bulletin, 42, no. 160 (2021): 9-17.
- ^ [1] Chant de la promotion Général Bigeard
- ^ Guilty Pleasures: Lost Command
Further reading
- Aussaresses, General Paul (2010). The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957. New York: Enigma Books. ISBN 978-1-929631-30-8.;
- Erwan Bergot, Bataillon Bigeard, Presse de la Cité, 1977,
- La mort, un terme ou un commencement, Christian Chabanis, Fayard 1982, entretiens avec Marcel Bigeard, etc.
- René Guitton, Bigeard, l'hommage, Éditions du Rocher, 2011, ISBN 978-2-268-07141-1
- Marie-Monique Robin, Escadrons de la mort, l'école française, La Découverte, 2004.
- Ruscio, Alain. "Deux ou trois choses que nous savons du général Bigeard." Cahiers d’histoire. Revue d’histoire critique 118 (2012): 145-163.
- Simpson, Howard (2005). Dien Bien Phu: The Epic Battle America Forgot. Potomic Books. ISBN 1-57488-840-4.
External links
Media related to Marcel Bigeard at Wikimedia Commons
- (in French) General Bigeard interview on the battle of Dien Bien Phu, May 3, 2004