Marcian
Marcian | |
---|---|
Roman emperor in the East | |
Reign | 25 August 450 – 27 January 457 |
Predecessor | Theodosius II |
Successor | Leo I |
Western emperors | Valentinian III (450–455) Petronius Maximus (455) Avitus (455–456) |
Born | c. 392 Thrace or Illyria |
Died | 27 January 457 (aged 65) Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) |
Burial | |
Spouse | |
Marcian (/ˈmɑːrʃən/; Latin: Marcianus; Greek: Μαρκιανός Markianos; c. 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor is known, other than that he was a domesticus (personal assistant) who served under the commanders Ardabur and his son Aspar for fifteen years. After the death of Emperor Theodosius II on 28 July 450, Marcian was made a candidate for the throne by Aspar, who held much influence because of his military power. After a month of negotiations Pulcheria, Theodosius' sister, agreed to marry Marcian. Zeno, a military leader whose influence was similar to Aspar's, may have been involved in these negotiations, as he was given the high-ranking court title of patrician upon Marcian's accession. Marcian was elected and inaugurated on 25 August 450.
Marcian reversed many of the actions of Theodosius II in the
After Attila's death in 453, Marcian took advantage of the resulting fragmentation of the Hunnic confederation by settling
Emperor Marcian | |
---|---|
The Holy and right believing emperor of Romans Marcian | |
Honored in | |
Feast | 17 February |
Attributes | Imperial attire |
Major works | Convened the council of Chalcedon |
Early life
Marcian was born in c. 392,
Background
Reign of Theodosius II
The Eastern Roman Empire was plagued by external threats during the reign of
On 19 October 439, the Vandals defeated the weakened Eastern Roman armies and captured the major city of Carthage. Both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires began preparing a massive counter-offensive, stripping the Balkan provinces of protection. In the spring of 440, 1,100 ships set sail from Constantinople for Africa;[10] sending away so many of the Eastern Roman forces was a huge gamble on Theodosius' part. He was betting the fortified cities along the Danube could delay the Huns long enough for the invasion force to gain a secure foothold in Africa, allowing troops to be withdrawn back to the northern frontier. This gamble worked until 442 when the bishop of Margus led a raiding party into the Huns' territory and desecrated their royal tombs. In response to this desecration, Attila demanded that the bishop be handed over. To ensure his own safety, the bishop struck a deal with Attila, surrendering the city of Margus to him in exchange for his own life. With control of Margus, Attila had a foothold across the Danube, which he aggressively exploited, capturing and destroying the cities of Viminacium, Singidunum, and Sirmium. Theodosius recalled Aspar to Constantinople and launched a counter-attack. After his force was decisively defeated, Theodosius undertook to pay tribute to the Huns every year, which he did until his death in 450.[11]
Rise to the throne
After Theodosius II died unexpectedly in a riding accident on 28 July 450, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its first succession crisis in 60 years. Theodosius had no sons, nor had he designated a successor.[3][12] Some later sources state that he willed the throne to Marcian on his deathbed, but this is thought to be propaganda created by Marcian's supporters after his election.[3] Marcian had served Aspar and his father Ardabur loyally for fifteen years. Aspar conspired to have Marcian elected and was able to negotiate with other powerful figures to have him made the emperor, despite his relative obscurity.[8] There was a one-month interregnum where negotiations for the succession took place, one of which was with Pulcheria, Theodosius II's sister, who agreed to marry Marcian;[8] it is thought that Pulcheria agreed to marry Marcian on the condition that he would abandon Theodosius II's religious policies and convoke a Church council.[13] Their marriage helped to legitimize Marcian's rule, as Pulcheria's family, the Theodosian dynasty, had direct ties to the throne.[8] Despite being married to Marcian, Pulcheria kept the vow of virginity she had made in 413, at age 14, during her three years of marriage to him.[8][14][15]
Historian
Marcian was elevated on 25 August 450, and Pulcheria's agreement to marry him likely boosted Marcian's legitimacy further.[3][18] Marcian took the regnal name of Imperator Caesar Flavius Marcianus Augustus upon his coronation.[19] The election of Marcian in 450 resulted in large changes to eastern imperial policy. Chrysaphius, the eunuch and spatharios (guard of the imperial chambers), who had exercised much influence over Theodosius, was either murdered or executed. Both Pulcheria and Zeno were opposed to Chrysaphius' influence, which may have motivated Marcian's actions. Marcian took a tougher stance against the Huns and a more direct role in ecclesiastical affairs. Byzantist Constance Head considers Marcian to be "an independent-minded emperor."[20] Lee states that Marcian "can appear as a stronger figure than many other fifth-century incumbents of the imperial office", but notes that "Flavius Zeno and Pulcheria had both been opponents of Chrysaphius, so the changes may be more a reflection of their influence."[3][21]
Reign
Conflict with the Huns
Almost immediately after becoming emperor, Marcian revoked Theodosius' treaties with Attila and proclaimed the end of subsidies. He stated that he might grant gifts if Attila was friendly, but Attila would be repelled if he attempted to raid the Eastern Roman Empire. At this time Attila was preparing to invade the Western Roman Empire, under the guise of helping Emperor
Attila sacked
Despite the plunder he now had from capturing Aquileia, Milan, and other cities, Attila was quickly placed in a precarious situation, because of the actions of both Eastern and Western Rome. In Italy, he was seriously lacking in funds, having not received subsidies from either Eastern or Western Rome for two years. Constant warfare had depleted his forces. As well, Attila's homeland was threatened by the Eastern Empire which, despite the punitive raids he ordered, took the offensive against the Great Hungarian Plain in mid-452, attacking across the Danube and inflicting a defeat upon the Huns.
This fragmentation allowed the Eastern Empire to resume its policy of playing off barbarians against each other, to stop any one tribe from becoming too powerful. It is almost certain that the Gepid king
Religious policy
During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of
Shortly before Marcian became emperor, the
To repudiate the Second Council of Ephesus, Marcian convened a new council of the imperial church, deemed to pass
The council also agreed to condemn the Coptic
The anti-Miaphysite resolutions of the council led to a large increase in civil disruption in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, where the majority of the population was Miaphysitic. Several violent revolts were put down with military force after significant bloodshed, in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch;
Marcian also funded Pulcheria's extensive building projects until her death in July 453. All of them focused on the construction of religious buildings,
Economic and legal policy
At the beginning of Marcian's reign, the Eastern Roman treasury was almost bankrupt, the result of the huge tributes paid to Attila by Theodosius. Marcian reversed this near bankruptcy, not by levying new taxes, but by cutting expenditure.[50] Upon his accession, he declared a remission of all debts owed to the state.[3] Marcian attempted to improve the efficiency of the state in multiple ways.[50] He laid out legal reforms in his novels, or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full.[51][52]
Marcian mandated that the office of
In 451, Marcian decreed that anyone who performed pagan rites would lose their property and be condemned to death and that no pagan temples, which had previously been closed, could be reopened. To ensure this law was implemented, he set a penalty of 50 pounds (23 kg) of gold for any judge, governor or official who did not enforce the law.[53]
Politics
When Marcian became emperor, he was influenced by
Marcian patronized the Blues, who were one of the two circus teams, the other being the Greens. The two teams had become more like political parties than sports teams by his time, wielding large influence in the empire; both vied for power. After the Greens responded angrily to his patronage, Marcus censured them, forbidding any of them to hold any public office for three years. Marcian's patronage of the Blues may have had personal motivations, as the once powerful Chrysaphius had been favorable to the Greens.[3][57][58]
Foreign relations
The Armenian king
King Gubazes I of Lazica—a Caucasian state in theory under Eastern Roman suzerainty—was attempting to form an alliance with the Sassanians to break free of Roman control in 456.[63] Marcian's troops invaded Lazica and restored Roman rule.[64] In 455, Marcian banned the export to barbarian tribes of weapons and the tools used to manufacture them.[65]
Relationship with the Western Roman Empire
Marcian was elected without any consultation with the Western Roman Emperor
When Marcian granted part of Pannonia to the Ostrogoths, and the
Marcian did not recognize any Western Emperor after Valentinian, denying Petronius Maximus, now Western Emperor, when he sent an embassy requesting it, and similarly refusing to recognize
The historian Geoffrey Nathan suggests the fact that only two Western delegates attended the Council of Chalcedon points to a new level of Western Roman self-absorption in their own political and religious affairs. He mentions that the canon from this council delegating authority over the whole east to the See of Constantinople marks a religious separation. Authority over the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire would prove a point of contention between Rome and Constantinople, leading up to the East–West Schism.[3]
Death
Marcian's reign ended on 27 January 457, when he died, aged 65, possibly of
Although Marcian had a son-in-law,
Anthemius would later be sent by Leo to become the
Legacy
Marcian was regarded favorably by Eastern Roman and Byzantine sources, often compared to Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I.[69] Marcian's reign was seen by many later Byzantine writers, such as Theophanes the Confessor, as a golden age: Marcian secured the Eastern Empire both politically and financially, set an orthodox religious line that future emperors would follow, and stabilized the capital city politically. Some later scholars attribute his success not just to his skill, but also to a large degree of luck. Not only had he been fortunate enough to have Pulcheria to legitimize his rule, but for much of it the two greatest external threats to Rome, the Sassanian Empire and the Huns, were absorbed with their own internal problems. Further, no natural disasters or plagues occurred during his reign.[3][47][69] He was remembered fondly by the people of Constantinople, who would shout "Reign like Marcian!" at the installation of future emperors.[73]
The Prefect of Constantinople Tatianus built a
In popular culture
Marcian is played by the
Primary sources
- Chronicon Paschale
- Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History
- Hydatius, Chronicle
- John Malalas, Chronographia
- John of Nikiû, Chronicle
- Jordanes, Romana
- George Kedrenos, Synopsis historion
- Marcellinus Comes, Annales
- Michael the Syrian, Chronicle
- Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos, Historia Ecclesiastica
- Priscus, History of Byzantium
- Pseudo-Dionysius, Corpus Areopagiticum
- John Rufus, Plerophoriae
- Theophanes the Confessor, Chronographia
- Theodorus Lector, Historia Ecclesiastica
- Zacharias Rhetor, Church History
- Joannes Zonaras, Extracts of History
- Zosimus, Historia Nova
Notes
- ^ Propaganda involving the story of an eagle blocking the sun, and another figure recognizing they would be emperor, was used by both Byzantine emperors Philippicus and Basil I.[74]
References
- ^ Rösch 1978, pp. 164, 165.
- ^ Meijer 2004, p. 153.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Nathan 1998.
- ^ Vasiliev 1980, p. 104.
- ^ Baldwin 1982, p. 98.
- ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 714–715.
- ^ a b Friell & Williams 2005, p. 84.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lee 2013, p. 96.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 45, 75, 84.
- ^ a b Thompson 1950, pp. 60–65.
- ^ Thompson 1950, pp. 60–78.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 94.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 104.
- ^ Smith 2008, p. 537.
- ^ Holum 1989, p. 209.
- ^ a b c Lee 2013, p. 98.
- ^ a b Lee 2001, p. 43.
- ^ Burgess 1993–1994.
- ^ Babcock 2005, p. 157.
- ^ Head 1982, p. 20.
- ^ Lee 2013, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 85.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 86.
- ^ a b c Friell & Williams 2005, p. 87.
- ^ Thompson 1950, p. 70.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 88.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 89.
- ^ a b Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 89–91.
- ^ Elton 2018, p. 172.
- ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 1296.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 137.
- ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 145.
- ^ Vasiliev 1980, pp. 99 & 105.
- ^ Davis 2004, p. 81.
- ^ Gallagher 2008, p. 585.
- ^ Whitworth 2017, p. 360.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 146.
- ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 147.
- ^ a b Lee 2001, p. 814.
- ^ Bauer 2010, p. 122.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 148.
- ^ Bury 2012, p. 380.
- ^ Vasiliev 1980, p. 105.
- ^ Vasiliev 1980, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Bauer 2010, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Meyendorff 1989, pp. 194–202.
- ^ a b Grant 1985, p. 306.
- ^ Herrin 2009, p. 11.
- ^ Bjornlie 2016, p. 60.
- ^ a b c d Bury 2012, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Jones 1986, p. 217.
- ^ Pharr, Davidson & Pharr 2001, p. 562.
- ^ Evans 2002, p. 66.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 97.
- ^ Grant 1985, p. 305.
- ^ a b Dzino & Parry 2017, p. 258.
- ^ Christophilopoulou 1986, p. 286.
- ^ Bury 1889, p. 85.
- ^ Manoogian 1984, p. 23.
- ^ Lacey 2016, p. 142.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Amirav 2015, p. 55 & 93.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 346.
- ^ Elton 2018, p. 174.
- ^ Holmes, Singleton & Jones 2001.
- ^ "Discussion: Colossal bronze statue of emperor in cuirass. Probably from Constantinople (now in Barletta). Late fourth to fifth century [LSA-441]". Last Statues of Antiquity. University of Oxford.
- ^ a b Gallagher 2008, p. 243.
- ^ Lee 2001, p. 42.
- ^ a b c d Kazhdan 1991.
- ^ Lee 2001, p. 43f.
- ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 290, note 84.
- ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 294.
- ^ a b Grant 1985, p. 307.
- ^ Lilie 2014, p. 193.
- ^ Thompson 1950, p. 68.
- ^ Clover 1978, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Clover 1978, p. 194.
- ^ Mathisen 1981, p. 243.
- ^ Kazhdan 1991a, p. 704.
- ^ a b Mathisen 1981, p. 237.
- ^ Baynes 1922, p. 223.
- ^ Croke 1978, pp. 5–9.
- ^ Lee 2001, p. 45.
- ^ a b c Meijer 2004, p. 154.
- ^ Kelly 2013, p. 240.
- ^ Vasiliev 1948, pp. 1, 3–26.
- ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 127.
- ^ Lee 2013, pp. 92, 98.
- ^ Norwich 1998, p. 51.
- ^ a b Mathisen 1998.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 1053–1054.
- ^ D'Ayala & Fodde 2008, p. 1167.
- ^ Gallagher 2008, p. 204.
- ^ Freely & Çakmak 2004, p. 63.
- ^ Kazhdan 1991b.
- ^ Kostenec 2008.
- ^ Kelly 2010, p. 326.
Sources
- Amirav, Hagit (2015). Authority and Performance: Sociological Perspectives on the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451). Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-647-20868-8.
- Babcock, Michael A. (2005). The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun (1st ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-425-20272-2.
- JSTOR 4435791.
- ISBN 978-0-3930-5975-5.
- JSTOR 296189.
- Bjornlie, M. Shane (2016). The Life and Legacy of Constantine: Traditions through the Ages. New York: ISBN 978-1-3170-2565-8.
- Burgess, R.W. (1993–1994). "The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic". Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 86/87: 47–68.
- ISBN 978-0-4861-4338-5.
- Bury, John Bagnell (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire, from Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. to 565 A.D.). University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University. OCLC 83109100.
- Clover, Frank M. (1978). "The Family and Early Career of Anicius Olybrius". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 27 (1): 169–196. JSTOR 4435589.
- Croke, Brian (1978). "The Date and Circumstances of Marcian's Decease". Byzantion. 48. JSTOR 44170550.
- D'Ayala, Dina; Fodde, Enrico (2008). Structural Analysis of Historic Construction: Preserving Safety and Significance. ISBN 978-1-4398-2822-9.
- Davis, Stephen J. (2004). The Early Coptic Papacy: The Egyptian Church and Its Leadership in Late Antiquity. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-830-6.
- Dzino, Danijel; Parry, Ken (2017). Byzantium, Its Neighbours and Its Cultures. ISBN 978-9-0043-4491-4.
- Elton, Hugh (2018). The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-45631-9.
- ISBN 978-1-1345-5976-3.
- ISBN 978-0-5211-7905-8.
- Friell, Gerard; Williams, Stephen (2005). The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century. ISBN 978-1-1347-3546-4.
- Gallagher, Clarence (2008). "The Two Churches". The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. By ISBN 978-0-1992-5246-6.
- ISBN 978-0-684-18388-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
- Christophilopoulou, Aikaterinē (1986). Byzantine History. A. M. Hakkert. ISBN 978-90-256-0836-1.
- Head, Constance (1982). Imperial Byzantine Portraits: A Verbal and Graphic Gallery. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-89241-084-2.
- ISBN 978-0-6911-4369-9.
- Holmes, Richard; Singleton, Charles; Jones, Spencer (2001). "Arms Trade". The Oxford Companion to Military History. ISBN 978-0-1986-0696-3.
- Holum, Kenneth G. (1989). Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Oakland, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06801-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20159-9.
- Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey. Vol. 1st. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3353-3.
- Kelly, Christopher (2010). The End of Empire: Attila the Hun & the Fall of Rome. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07266-2.
- Kelly, Christopher (2013). Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-27690-1.
- Kostenec, Jan (2008). "Chrysotriklinos". Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Constantinople. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- Lacey, James (2016). Great Strategic Rivalries: From The Classical World to the Cold War. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-062047-9.
- Lee, A. D. (2001). "The Eastern Empire: Theodosius to Anastasius". ISBN 978-0-5213-2591-2.
- Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. ISBN 978-0-7486-6835-9.
- Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (2014). "Reality and Invention: Reflections on Byzantine Historiography". JSTOR 24643758.
- Mathisen, Ralph W. (1981). "Avitus, Italy and the East in A.D. 455–456". Byzantion. 51 (1): 232–247. JSTOR 44170681.
- Mathisen, Ralph W. (1998). "Roman Emperors – DIR Anthemius". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367–455. ISBN 978-0-1996-6481-8.
- ISBN 978-1-1343-8406-8.
- Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial Unity and Christian Divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
- Manoogian, Torkom (1984). Vardanankʻ ew Vahaneankʻ. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. OCLC 31636926.
- Nathan, Geoffrey S. (1998). "Roman Emperors – DIR Marcian". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-6797-7269-9.
- ISBN 978-1-5847-7146-3.
- Smith, Bonnie G. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Vol. 1st. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9.
- JSTOR 23037876.
- Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. JSTOR 1291047.
- ISBN 978-0-2998-0925-6.
- Whitworth, Patrick (2017). Constantinople to Chalcedon: Shaping the World to Come. Sacristy Press. ISBN 978-1-910519-47-9.
- Rösch, Gerhard (1978). Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-0260-1.
Further reading
- Keppie, Lawrence (2002). Understanding Roman Inscriptions. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-134-74616-3.
- Klein, Konstantin (2018). "Kaiser Marcian und die Monophysiten". Gymnasium. 125 (3): 251–273.
External links
- Media related to Flavius Marcianus at Wikimedia Commons