Marine ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are the largest of
Marine ecosystems are characterized by the biological
Marine ecosystems are important sources of
Because of the opportunities in marine ecosystems for humans and the threats created by humans, the international community has prioritized "Life below water" as Sustainable Development Goal 14.[5] The goal is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development".[6]
Types or locations
Marine coastal ecosystems
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals form multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them.[7]
Mangroves
Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in low-oxygen soil near coastlines in tropical or subtropical latitudes.[8] They are an extremely productive and complex ecosystem that connects the land and sea. Mangroves consist of species that are not necessarily related to each other and are often grouped for the characteristics they share rather than genetic similarity.[9] Because of their proximity to the coast, they have all developed adaptions such as salt excretion and root aeration to live in salty, oxygen-depleted water.[9] Mangroves can often be recognized by their dense tangle of roots that act to protect the coast by reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, wave, and tides.[8] The mangrove ecosystem is also an important source of food for many species as well as excellent at sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with global mangrove carbon storage is estimated at 34 million metric tons per year.[9]
Seagrass meadows
Seagrasses evolved from marine algae which colonized land and became land plants, and then returned to the ocean about 100 million years ago. However, today seagrass meadows are being damaged by human activities such as pollution from land runoff, fishing boats that drag dredges or trawls across the meadows uprooting the grass, and overfishing which unbalances the ecosystem. Seagrass meadows are currently being destroyed at a rate of about two football fields every hour.
Kelp forests
Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout
Physically formed by brown
However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp
Estuaries
Estuaries occur where there is a noticeable change in salinity between saltwater and freshwater sources. This is typically found where rivers meet the ocean or sea. The wildlife found within estuaries is unique as the water in these areas is brackish - a mix of freshwater flowing to the ocean and salty seawater.[20] Other types of estuaries also exist and have similar characteristics as traditional brackish estuaries. The Great Lakes are a prime example. There, river water mixes with lake water and creates freshwater estuaries.[20] Estuaries are extremely productive ecosystems that many humans and animal species rely on for various activities.[21] This can be seen as, of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries as they provide many environmental and economic benefits such as crucial habitat for many species, and being economic hubs for many coastal communities.[21] Estuaries also provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, habitat protection, erosion control, gas regulation nutrient cycling, and it even gives education, recreation and tourism opportunities to people.[22]
Lagoons
Lagoons are areas that are separated from larger water by natural barriers such as coral reefs or sandbars. There are two types of lagoons, coastal and oceanic/atoll lagoons.[23] A coastal lagoon is, as the definition above, simply a body of water that is separated from the ocean by a barrier. An atoll lagoon is a circular coral reef or several coral islands that surround a lagoon. Atoll lagoons are often much deeper than coastal lagoons.[24] Most lagoons are very shallow meaning that they are greatly affected by changed in precipitation, evaporation and wind. This means that salinity and temperature are widely varied in lagoons and that they can have water that ranges from fresh to hypersaline.[24] Lagoons can be found in on coasts all over the world, on every continent except Antarctica and is an extremely diverse habitat being home to a wide array of species including birds, fish, crabs, plankton and more.[24] Lagoons are also important to the economy as they provide a wide array of ecosystem services in addition to being the home of so many different species. Some of these services include fisheries, nutrient cycling, flood protection, water filtration, and even human tradition.[24]
Salt marsh
Salt marshes are a transition from the ocean to the land, where fresh and saltwater mix.[25] The soil in these marshes is often made up of mud and a layer of organic material called peat. Peat is characterized as waterlogged and root-filled decomposing plant matter that often causes low oxygen levels (hypoxia). These hypoxic conditions causes growth of the bacteria that also gives salt marshes the sulfurous smell they are often known for.[26] Salt marshes exist around the world and are needed for healthy ecosystems and a healthy economy. They are extremely productive ecosystems and they provide essential services for more than 75 percent of fishery species and protect shorelines from erosion and flooding.[26] Salt marshes can be generally divided into the high marsh, low marsh, and the upland border. The low marsh is closer to the ocean, with it being flooded at nearly every tide except low tide.[25] The high marsh is located between the low marsh and the upland border and it usually only flooded when higher than usual tides are present.[25] The upland border is the freshwater edge of the marsh and is usually located at elevations slightly higher than the high marsh. This region is usually only flooded under extreme weather conditions and experiences much less waterlogged conditions and salt stress than other areas of the marsh.[25]
Intertidal zones
Intertidal zones are the areas that are visible and exposed to air during low tide and covered up by saltwater during high tide.[27] There are four physical divisions of the intertidal zone with each one having its distinct characteristics and wildlife. These divisions are the Spray zone, High intertidal zone, Middle Intertidal zone, and Low intertidal zone. The Spray zone is a damp area that is usually only reached by the ocean and submerged only under high tides or storms. The high intertidal zone is submerged at high tide but remains dry for long periods between high tides.[27] Due to the large variance of conditions possible in this region, it is inhabited by resilient wildlife that can withstand these changes such as barnacles, marine snails, mussels and hermit crabs.[27] Tides flow over the middle intertidal zone two times a day and this zone has a larger variety of wildlife.[27] The low intertidal zone is submerged nearly all the time except during the lowest tides and life is more abundant here due to the protection that the water gives.[27]
Ocean surface
Organisms that live freely at the surface, termed
The ocean's surface acts like a skin between the atmosphere above and the water below, and harbours an ecosystem unique to this environment. This sun-drenched habitat can be defined as roughly one metre in depth, as nearly half of
A stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes.[37] Some peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from marine microorganisms in sea spray. In 2018, scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet.[38][39]
Deep sea and sea floor
The deep sea contains up to 95% of the space occupied by living organisms.[40] Combined with the sea floor (or benthic zone), these two areas have yet to be fully explored and have their organisms documented.[40][41]
Large marine ecosystems
In 1984,
Altogether, there are 66 LMEs, which contribute an estimated $3 trillion annually. This includes being responsible for 90% of global annual marine fishery
Large marine ecosystems include:
- East Bering Sea
- Gulf of Alaska
- California Current
- Gulf of California
- Gulf of Mexico
- Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf
- Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf
- Scotian Shelf
- Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf
- Insular Pacific-Hawaiian
- Pacific Central-American Coastal
- Caribbean Sea
- Humboldt Current
- Patagonian Shelf
- South Brazil Shelf
- East Brazil Shelf
- North Brazil Shelf
- West Greenland Shelf
- East Greenland Shelf
- Barents Sea
- Norwegian Shelf
- North Sea
- Baltic Sea
- Celtic-Biscay Shelf
- Central Arctic
- Iberian Coastal
- Mediterranean Sea
- Canary Current
- Guinea Current
- Benguela Current
- Agulhas Current
- Somali Coastal Current
- Arabian Sea
- Red Sea
- Bay of Bengal
- Gulf of Thailand
- South China Sea
- Sulu-Celebes Sea
- Indonesian Sea
- North Australian Shelf
- Northeast Australian Shelf/Great Barrier Reef
- East-Central Australian Shelf
- Southeast Australian Shelf
- Southwest Australian Shelf
- West-Central Australian Shelf
- Northwest Australian Shelf
- New Zealand Shelf
- East China Sea
- Yellow Sea
- Kuroshio Current
- Sea of Japan
- Oyashio Current
- Sea of Okhotsk
- West Bering Sea
- Chukchi Sea
- Beaufort Sea
- East Siberian Sea
- Laptev Sea
- Kara Sea
- Iceland Shelf
- Faroe Plateau
- Antarctica
- Black Sea
- Hudson Bay
- Arctic Ocean
- Greenland Sea
Role in ecosystem services
In addition to providing many benefits to the natural world, marine ecosystems also provide social, economic, and biological
Ecosystem services fall into multiple categories, including supporting services, provisioning services, regulating services, and cultural services.[49]
The productivity of a marine ecosystem can be measured in several ways. Measurements pertaining to
Bottom-trawl surveys and pelagic-species acoustic surveys are used to assess changes in fish biodiversity and abundance in LMEs. Fish populations can be surveyed for stock identification, length, stomach content, age-growth relationships, fecundity, coastal pollution and associated pathological conditions, as well as multispecies trophic relationships. Fish trawls can also collect sediment and inform us about ocean-bottom conditions such as anoxia.[54]
Threats
Human activities affect
The ocean can be described as the world's largest ecosystem and it is home for many species of marine life. Different activities carried out and caused by human beings such as global warming, ocean acidification, and pollution affect marine life and its habitats. For the past 50 years, more than 90 percent of
Human exploitation and development
Coastal marine ecosystems experience growing population pressures with nearly 40% of people in the world living within 100 km of the coast.[64] Humans often aggregate near coastal habitats to take advantage of ecosystem services. For example, coastal capture fisheries from mangroves and coral reef habitats are estimated to be worth a minimum of $34 billion per year.[64] Yet, many of these habitats are either marginally protected or not protected. Mangrove area has declined worldwide by more than one-third since 1950,[65] and 60% of the world's coral reefs are now immediately or directly threatened.[66][67] Human development, aquaculture, and industrialization often lead to the destruction, replacement, or degradation of coastal habitats.[64]
Moving offshore, pelagic marine systems are directly threatened by
Pollution
Invasive species
- Global aquarium trade
- Ballast water transport
- Aquaculture
Climate change
- Warming temperatures (see marine heat wave)
- Increased frequency/intensity of storms
- Ocean acidification
- Sea level rise
Society and culture
Global goals
By integrating socioeconomic metrics with ecosystem management solutions, scientific findings can be utilized to benefit both the environment and economy of local regions. Management efforts must be practical and cost-effective. In 2000, the Department of Natural Resource Economics at the University of Rhode Island has created a method for measuring and understanding the human dimensions of LMEs and for taking into consideration both socioeconomic and environmental costs and benefits of managing Large Marine Ecosystems.[76][77][78]
International attention to address the threats of coasts has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities.[79][5] Furthermore, the United Nations has declared 2021-2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention.[80]
See also
References
- ^ "Oceanic Institute". www.oceanicinstitute.org. Archived from the original on 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
- ^ "Ocean Habitats and Information". 2017-01-05. Archived from the original on April 1, 2017. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
- ^ "Facts and figures on marine biodiversity | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
- ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (2 March 2006). "Marine Ecosystems". Retrieved 2006-08-25.
- ^ a b Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. SDG 14" SDG-Tracker.org, website (2018).
- ^ United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
- ^ "Corals and Coral Reefs". Ocean Portal | Smithsonian. 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
- ^ a b US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is a mangrove forest?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-21.
- ^ a b c "Mangroves". Smithsonian Ocean. 30 April 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-21.
- ^ Mann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.
- ^ Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 16576-16580.
- ^ Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83, 687-699.
- ^ Jackson, G.A. and C.D. Winant. 1983. Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Report 2: 75-80.
- J.M. Erlandson, J.A. Estesand M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.
- ^ Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
- ^ Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.
- ^ Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528
- ^ Morton, Adam; Cordell, Marni; Fanner, David; Ball, Andy; Evershed, Nick. "The dead sea: Tasmania's underwater forests disappearing in our lifetime". the Guardian. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
- ^ Steinbauer, James. "What Will It Take to Bring Back the Kelp Forest? - Bay Nature Magazine". Bay Nature. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
- ^ a b US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is an estuary?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
- ^ a b US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Estuaries, NOS Education Offering". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
- ^ "Estuaries". www.crd.bc.ca. 2013-11-14. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
- ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is a lagoon?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
- ^ a b c d Miththapala, Sriyanie (2013). "Lagoons and Estuaries" (PDF). IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-23. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
- ^ a b c d "What is a Salt Marsh?" (PDF). New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-10-21. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
- ^ a b US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is a salt marsh?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
- ^ a b c d e US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is the intertidal zone?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-21.
- ^ PMID 33909611. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- S2CID 86478743.
- .
- .
- S2CID 32923256.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-203-50781-0.
- ISBN 978-0-203-50781-0.
- ISBN 978-0-203-50781-0.
- ^ Living Bacteria Are Riding Earth’s Air Currents Smithsonian Magazine, 11 January 2016.
- ^ Robbins, Jim (13 April 2018). "Trillions Upon Trillions of Viruses Fall From the Sky Each Day". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 April 2018.
- PMID 29379178.
- ^ a b "The Deep Sea". Ocean Portal | Smithsonian. 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
- ^ "The Benthic Zone". Ecosystems. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
- NOAA. 1 January 2005. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
- ^ "Large Marine Ecosystems Hub - A Regional Perspective on the World's Ocean". Retrieved 31 July 2023.
- ^ Olsen SB, Sutinen JG, Juda L, Hennessey TM, Grigalunas TA. 2006. A Handbook on Governance and Socioeconomics of Large Marine Ecosystems. Kingston, RI: Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. 94 p.
- ^ Wang H. 2004. An evaluation of the modular approach to the assessment and management of large marine ecosystems. Ocean Development and International Law 35:267-286.
- ^ Juda L, Hennessey T. 2001. Governance profiles and the management of the uses of large marine ecosystems. Ocean Development and International Law 32:41-67.
- .
- ^ a b c "Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Marine Systems" (PDF).
- ^ "Ecosystem Services | Mapping Ocean Wealth". oceanwealth.org. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
- ^ Pauly D, Christensen V. 1995. Primary production required to sustain global fisheries. Nature 374:255-257.
- ^ Aiken J, Pollard R, Williams R, Griffiths G, Bellan I. 1999. Measurements of the upper ocean structure using towed profiling systems. In: Sherman K, Tang Q, editors. Large marine ecosystems of the Pacific Rim: Assessment, sustainability, and management. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, Inc. p 346-362.
- ^ Berman MS, Sherman K. 2001. A towed body sampler for monitoring marine ecosystems. Sea Technology 42(9):48-52.
- ^ SAHFOS. 2008. Annual Report 2007. Plymouth, UK: The Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science.
- ^ Sea Around Us Project at www.seaaroundus.org/
- .
- .
- .
- ^ Human impacts on marine ecosystems Archived 22 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ "5 ways that climate change affects the ocean". www.conservation.org. Retrieved 2022-12-09.
- ISSN 2197-4284.
- ISSN 0308-597X.
- ^ Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC). IPCC (Report). 25 September 2019. p. 2. Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- .
- ^ a b c "Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Coastal Systems" (PDF).
- S2CID 1886523.
- ^ "Coral Reefs". Ocean Health Index. Retrieved 2018-12-01.
- )
- PMID 19066624.
- ^ Urbina, Ian (June 19, 2020). "The Bane of Unsustainable Fishing". The Safina Center.
- PMID 30564744.
- ^ Information, NOAA National Centers for Environmental (2021-09-27). "In Hot Water: Ocean Heat and Our Warming World". ArcGIS StoryMaps. Retrieved 2022-03-01.
- OCLC 1052566532.
- ^ "Marine Pollution". Education | National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2023-06-19.
- ^ Duce, Robert; Galloway, J.; Liss, P. (2009). "The Impacts of Atmospheric Deposition to the Ocean on Marine Ecosystems and Climate WMO Bulletin Vol 58 (1)". Archived from the original on 18 December 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
- ^ "What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean?". National Ocean Service (US). Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
- ^ Sutinen J, ed. 2000. A framework for monitoring and assessing socioeconomics and governance of large marine ecosystems. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-158:32p.
- ^ Sutinen, J.G. , P. Clay, C.L. Dyer, S.F. Edwards, J. Gates, T. Grigalunas, T. Hennesey, L. Juda, A.W. Kitts, P. Thunberg, H.R. Upton, and J.B. Walden. 2005. A framework for monitoring and assessing socioeconomics and governance of large marine ecosystems. 27-81 In, Hennessey, T.M. and J.G. Sutinen (Editors), Sustaining Large Marine Ecosystems: The human dimension. Elsevier.368p.
- ^ Duda, A.M.. 2005.Targeting development assistance to meet WSSD goals for large marine ecosystems and small island developing states. Ocean & Coastal Management 48:1014
- ^ United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
- ISSN 2296-7745.