Marine fungi
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Marine life |
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Marine fungi are
Different marine habitats support very different fungal communities. Fungi can be found in niches ranging from ocean depths and coastal waters to
Overview
Terrestrial fungi play critical roles in nutrient cycling and food webs and can shape macroorganism communities as parasites and mutualists. Although estimates for the number of fungal species on the planet range from 1.5 to over 5 million, likely fewer than 10% of fungi have been identified so far. To date, a relatively small percentage of described species are associated with marine environments, with ~1,100 species retrieved exclusively from the marine environment. Nevertheless, fungi have been found in nearly every marine habitat explored, from the surface of the ocean to kilometers below ocean sediments. Fungi are hypothesized to contribute to
Fungi represent a large and diverse group of microorganisms in microbiological communities in the marine environment and have an important role in nutrient cycling.[7] They are divided into two major groups; obligate marine fungi and facultative marine fungi.[8] Obligate marine fungi are adapted to reproduce in the aquatic environment, while facultative marine fungi can grow in aquatic as well as terrestrial environments.[8] Marine fungi are called marine-derived fungi when their facultative or obligate state is not certain.[9]
Marine fungal species occur as
Factors that influence whether or not marine fungi are present in any particular location include the water temperature, its salinity, the water movement, the presence of suitable substrates for colonization, the presence of propagules in the water, interspecific competition, pollution and the oxygen content of the water.[5]
Some marine fungi which have ventured into the sea from terrestrial habitats include species that burrow into sand grains, living in the pores. Others live inside stony corals, and may become pathogenic if the coral is stressed by rising sea temperatures.[3][self-published source?][12]
In 2011 the
The secondary metabolites produced by marine fungi have high potential for use in biotechnological, medical and industrial applications.[14]
Evolution
In contrast to
The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the
For much of the
The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including
The growth of fungi as
Fungi were considered to be part of the plant kingdom until the mid-20th century. By the middle of the 20th century Fungi were considered a distinct kingdom, and the newly recognized kingdom Fungi becoming the third major kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes with kingdom Plantae and kingdom Animalia, the distinguishing feature between these kingdoms being the way they obtain nutrition.[28]
Marine plants
Mangroves
The greatest number of known species of marine fungi are from
Other plants
The
Eelgrass, Zostera marina, is sometimes affected by seagrass wasting disease. The primary cause of this seems to be pathogenic strains of the protist Labyrinthula zosterae, but it is thought that fungal pathogens also contribute and may predispose the eelgrass to disease.[31][32]
Wood
Many marine fungi are very specific as to which species of floating and submerged wood they colonise. A range of species of fungi colonise beech, while oak supports a different community. When a fungal propagule lands on a suitable piece of wood, it will grow if no other fungi are present. If the wood is already colonised by another fungal species, growth will depend on whether that fungus produces antifungal chemicals and whether the new arrival can resist them. The chemical properties of colonizing fungi also affect the animal communities that graze on them: in one study, when hyphae from five different species of marine fungi were fed to nematodes, one species supported less than half the number of nematodes per mg of hyphae than did the others.[33]
Detection of fungi in wood may involve incubation at a suitable temperature in a suitable water medium for a period of six months to upward of eighteen months.[33]
Lichens
Lichens are mutualistic associations between fungi, usually an ascomycete with a basidiomycete,[34] and an alga or a cyanobacterium. Several lichens, including Arthopyrenia halodytes, Pharcidia laminariicola, Pharcidia rhachiana and Turgidosculum ulvae, are found in marine environments.[2] Many more occur in the splash zone, where they occupy different vertical zones depending on how tolerant they are to submersion.[35] Lichen-like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in China dating back about 600 million years ago.[36]
Fungi from Verrucariales also form marine lichens with the brown algae Petroderma maculiforme,[37] and have a symbiotic relationship with seaweed like (rockweed) and Blidingia minima, where the algae are the dominant components. The fungi is thought to help the rockweeds to resist desiccation when exposed to air.[38][39] In addition, lichens can also use yellow-green algae (Heterococcus) as their symbiotic partner.[40]
Lichen-like fossils consisting of coccoid cells (
Not to be confused with lichens are Mycophycobiosis, similar to lichens in being a symbiosis of an algae and a fungus, in mycophycobiosis the algae forms the external, multicellular structure housing the fungus. The reproduction of both partners is always disjoint. [49]
Algae and phytoplankton
Marine fungi associated with algae are largely unexplored, despite their ecological role and potential industrial applications. For example, it has been shown that fungi associated with algae produce many bioactive
Almost one-third of all known marine fungal species are associated with algae.[59] The most commonly described fungi associated with algae belong to the Ascomycota and are represented by a wide diversity of genera such as Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Phoma, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Emericellopsis, Retrosium, Spathulospora, Pontogenia and Sigmoidea.[55][60][57][58][61][62][63][9]
Invertebrates
The
Vertebrates
Marine sediment
Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Chytridiomycota have been observed in marine sediments ranging in depth from 0 to 1740 meters beneath the ocean floor. One study analyzed subsurface samples of marine sediment between these depths and isolated all observable fungi. Isolates showed that most subsurface fungal diversity was found between depths of 0 to 25 meters below the sea floor with Fusarium oxysporum and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa being the most prominent. Overall, the ascomycota are the dominant subsurface phylum.[68] Almost all fungal species recovered have also been observed in terrestrial sediments with spore-sourcing indicating terrestrial origin.[68][69]
Contrary to previous beliefs, deep subsurface marine fungi actively grow and germinate, with some studies showing increased growth rates under high hydrostatic pressures. Though the methods by which marine fungi are able to survive the extreme conditions of the seafloor and below is largely unknown, Saccharomyces cerevisiae shines some light onto adaptations that make it possible. This fungus strengthens its outer membrane in order to endure higher hydrostatic pressures.[68][clarification needed]
Several sediment-dwelling marine fungi are involved in biogeochemical processes. Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani are denitrifiers both in marine and terrestrial environments.[68][70] Some are co-denitrifying, fixing nitrogen into nitrous oxide and dinitrogen.[69] Still others process organic matter including carbohydrate, proteins, and lipids. Ocean crust fungi, like those found around hydrothermal vents, decompose organic matter, and play various roles in manganese and arsenic cycling.[6]
Sediment-bound marine fungi played a major role in breaking down oil spilled from the Deepwater Horizons disaster in 2010. Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, among others, can degrade high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons as well as assist hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria.[6]
Arctic marine fungi
Marine fungi have been observed as far north as the Arctic Ocean. Chytridiomycota, the dominant parasitic fungal organism in Arctic waters, take advantage of phytoplankton blooms in brine channels caused by warming temperatures and increased light penetration through the ice. These fungi parasitize diatoms, thereby controlling algal blooms and recycling carbon back into the microbial food web. Arctic blooms also provide conducive environments for other parasitic fungi. Light levels and seasonal factors, such as temperature and salinity, also control chytrid activity independently of phytoplankton populations. During periods of low temperatures and phytoplankton levels, Aureobasidium and Cladosporium populations overtake those of chytrids within the brine channels.[72]
Food webs and the mycoloop
Human uses
Biomass processors
Medical
Marine fungi produce antiviral and antibacterial compounds as metabolites with upwards of 1,000 having realized and potential uses as anticancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory drugs.[77][78]
The antiviral properties of marine fungi were realized in 1988 after their compounds were used to successfully treat the H1N1 flu virus. In addition to H1N1, antiviral compounds isolated from marine fungi have been shown to have virucidal effects on
Mangrove-associated fungi have prominent antibacterial effects on several common pathogenic human bacteria including, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. High competition between organisms within mangrove niches lead to increases in antibacterial substances produced by these fungi as defensive agents.[79] Penicillium and Aspergillus species are the largest producers of antibacterial compounds among the marine fungi.[80]
Various deep-sea marine fungi species have recently been shown to produce anti-cancer metabolites. One study uncovered 199 novel cytotoxic compounds with anticancer potential. In addition to cytotoxic metabolites, these compounds have structures capable of disrupting cancer-activated telomerases via DNA binding. Others inhibit the topoisomerase enzyme from continuing to aid in the repair and replication of cancer cells.[78]
See also
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Further reading
- Gareth Jones, E. B. and Pang, Ka-Lai (2012) Marine Fungi: and Fungal-like Organisms Marine and Freshwater Botany Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110264067.
- Raghukumar, Chandralata (2012) Biology of Marine Fungi Springer. ISBN 9783642233425.
- Raghukumar, Seshagiri (2017) Fungi in Coastal and Oceanic Marine Ecosystems Springer. ISBN 9783319543048.