Ice sheet
In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[2] is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[3] The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.
Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams.
In previous geologic time spans (
Overview
An ice sheet is a body of ice which covers a land area of continental size - meaning that it exceeds 50,000 km2.[4] The currently existing two ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica have a much greater area than this minimum definition, measuring at 1.7 million km2 and 14 million km2, respectively. Both ice sheets are also very thick, as they consist of a continuous ice layer with an average thickness of 2 km (1 mi).[1][5][1] This ice layer forms because most of the snow which falls onto the ice sheet never melts, and is instead compressed by the mass of newer snow layers.[4]
This process of ice sheet growth is still occurring nowadays, as can be clearly seen in an example that occurred in World War II. A Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter plane crashed in Greenland in 1942. It was only recovered 50 years later. By then, it had been buried under 81 m (268 feet) of ice which had formed over that time period.[6]
Dynamics
Glacial flows
Even stable ice sheets are continually in motion as the ice gradually flows outward from the central plateau, which is the tallest point of the ice sheet, and towards the margins. The ice sheet slope is low around the plateau but increases steeply at the margins.[4] This difference in slope occurs due to an imbalance between high ice accumulation in the central plateau and lower accumulation, as well as higher ablation, at the margins. This imbalance increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and deformation will increase as the equilibrium line between these two processes is approached.[7][8] This motion is driven by gravity but is controlled by temperature and the strength of individual glacier bases. A number of processes alter these two factors, resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on time scales ranging from hourly (i.e. tidal flows) to the centennial (Milankovich cycles).[8]
On an hour-to-hour basis, surges of ice motion can be modulated by tidal activity. The influence of a 1 m tidal oscillation can be felt as much as 100 km from the sea.
Increasing global air temperatures due to climate change take around 10,000 years to directly propagate through the ice before they influence bed temperatures, but may have an effect through increased surface melting, producing more supraglacial lakes. These lakes may feed warm water to glacial bases and facilitate glacial motion.[12] Lakes of a diameter greater than ~300 m are capable of creating a fluid-filled crevasse to the glacier/bed interface. When these crevasses form, the entirety of the lake's (relatively warm) contents can reach the base of the glacier in as little as 2–18 hours – lubricating the bed and causing the glacier to surge.[13] Water that reaches the bed of a glacier may freeze there, increasing the thickness of the glacier by pushing it up from below.[14]
Boundary conditions
As the margins end at the marine boundary, excess ice is discharged through ice streams or
The presence of ice shelves has a stabilizing influence on the glacier behind them, while an absence of an ice shelf becomes destabilizing. For instance, when
Marine ice sheet instability
In the 1970s, Johannes Weertman proposed that because seawater is denser than ice, then any ice sheets grounded below sea level inherently become less stable as they melt due to Archimedes' principle.[17] Effectively, these marine ice sheets must have enough mass to exceed the mass of the seawater displaced by the ice, which requires excess thickness. As the ice sheet melts and becomes thinner, the weight of the overlying ice decreases. At a certain point, sea water could force itself into the gaps which form at the base of the ice sheet, and marine ice sheet instability (MISI) would occur.[17][18]
Even if the ice sheet is grounded below the sea level, MISI cannot occur as long as there is a stable ice shelf in front of it.[19] The boundary between the ice sheet and the ice shelf, known as the grounding line, is particularly stable if it is constrained in an embayment.[19] In that case, the ice sheet may not be thinning at all, as the amount of ice flowing over the grounding line would be likely to match the annual accumulation of ice from snow upstream.[18] Otherwise, ocean warming at the base of an ice shelf tends to thin it through basal melting. As the ice shelf becomes thinner, it exerts less of an buttressing effect on the ice sheet, the so-called back stress increases and the grounding line is pushed backwards.[18] The ice sheet is likely to start losing more ice from the new location of the grounding line and so become lighter and less capable of displacing seawater. This eventually pushes the grounding line back even further, creating a self-reinforcing mechanism.[18][20]
Vulnerable locations
Because the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet is grounded below the sea level, it would be vulnerable to geologically rapid ice loss in this scenario.
The majority of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet would not be affected. Totten Glacier is the largest glacier there which is known to be subject to MISI - yet, its potential contribution to sea level rise is comparable to that of the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet.[29] Totten Glacier has been losing mass nearly monotonically in recent decades,[30] suggesting rapid retreat is possible in the near future, although the dynamic behavior of Totten Ice Shelf is known to vary on seasonal to interannual timescales.[31][32][33] The Wilkes Basin is the only major submarine basin in Antarctica that is not thought to be sensitive to warming.[26] Ultimately, even geologically rapid sea level rise would still most likely require several millennia for the entirety of these ice masses (WAIS and the subglacial basins) to be lost.[34][35]
Marine Ice Cliff Instability
A related process known as Marine Ice Cliff Instability (MICI) posits that due to the physical characteristics of ice, subaerial ice cliffs exceeding ~90 meters in height are likely to collapse under their own weight, and this could lead to self-sustaining ice sheet retreat.[18] It is thought to occur when an ice sheet grounded below sea level with an inland-sloping bed has exposed ice cliffs after the removal of peripheral ice. The tall cliffs, exposed to hydrofracturing forces and without buttressing, are structurally unstable due to their mass, and their collapse is thought to then expose the ice behind it to the same instability, resulting in a cycle of cliff collapse. Surface melt can further enhance MICI through ponding and hydrofracture.[19][36] However, this theory is controversial, and has never been directly observed in the present, only in geological records.[37] Recent research has highlighted the importance of glacial geometry in causing or preventing marine ice cliff instability, suggesting that buttressing ice cliffs might be a way to prevent their collapse.[38][39]
Earth's current two ice sheets
Antarctic ice sheet
West Antarctic ice sheet
West Antarctic ice sheet | |
---|---|
Type | Ice sheet |
Area | <1,970,000 km2 (760,000 sq mi)[40] |
Thickness | ~1.05 km (0.7 mi) (average),[41] ~2 km (1.2 mi) (maximum)[40] |
Status | Receding |
The
As a smaller part of Antarctica, WAIS is also more strongly affected by
In the long term, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is likely to disappear due to the warming which has already occurred.
East Antarctic ice sheet
East Antarctic ice sheet | |
---|---|
Type | Ice sheet |
Thickness | ~2.2 km (1.4 mi) (average),[61] ~4.9 km (3.0 mi) (maximum) [62] |
The
The surface of the EAIS is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth. Lack of moisture in the air, high albedo from the snow as well as the surface's consistently high elevation[65] results in the reported cold temperature records of nearly −100 °C (−148 °F).[66][67] It is the only place on Earth cold enough for atmospheric temperature inversion to occur consistently. That is, while the atmosphere is typically warmest near the surface and becomes cooler at greater elevation, atmosphere during the Antarctic winter is cooler at the surface than in its middle layers. Consequently, greenhouse gases actually trap heat in the middle atmosphere and reduce its flow towards the surface while the temperature inversion lasts.[65]
Due to these factors, East Antarctica had experienced slight cooling for decades while the rest of the world warmed as the result of climate change. Clear warming over East Antarctica only started to occur since the year 2000, and was not conclusively detected until the 2020s.[68][69] In the early 2000s, cooling over East Antarctica seemingly outweighing warming over the rest of the continent was frequently misinterpreted by the media and occasionally used as an argument for climate change denial.[70][71][72] After 2009, improvements in Antarctica's instrumental temperature record have proven that the warming over West Antarctica resulted in consistent net warming across the continent since the 1957.[73]
Because the East Antarctic ice sheet has barely warmed, it is still gaining ice on average.Greenland ice sheet
The Greenland ice sheet is an ice sheet which forms the second largest body of ice in the world. It is an average of 1.67 km (1.0 mi) thick, and over 3 km (1.9 mi) thick at its maximum.[80] It is almost 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) long in a north–south direction, with a maximum width of 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern edge.[81] The ice sheet covers 1,710,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi), around 80% of the surface of Greenland, or about 12% of the area of the Antarctic ice sheet.[80] The term 'Greenland ice sheet' is often shortened to GIS or GrIS in scientific literature.[82][83][84][85]
Greenland has had major glaciers and ice caps for at least 18 million years,[86] but a single ice sheet first covered most of the island some 2.6 million years ago.[87] Since then, it has both grown[88][89] and contracted significantly.[90][91][92] The oldest known ice on Greenland is about 1 million years old.[93] Due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the ice sheet is now the warmest it has been in the past 1000 years,[94] and is losing ice at the fastest rate in at least the past 12,000 years.[95]
Every summer, parts of the surface melt and ice cliffs calve into the sea. Normally the ice sheet would be replenished by winter snowfall,[83] but due to global warming the ice sheet is melting two to five times faster than before 1850,[96] and snowfall has not kept up since 1996.[97] If the Paris Agreement goal of staying below 2 °C (3.6 °F) is achieved, melting of Greenland ice alone would still add around 6 cm (2+1⁄2 in) to global sea level rise by the end of the century. If there are no reductions in emissions, melting would add around 13 cm (5 in) by 2100,[98]: 1302 with a worst-case of about 33 cm (13 in).[99] For comparison, melting has so far contributed 1.4 cm (1⁄2 in) since 1972,[100] while sea level rise from all sources was 15–25 cm (6–10 in)) between 1901 and 2018.[101]: 5
If all 2,900,000 cubic kilometres (696,000 cu mi) of the ice sheet were to melt, it would increase global sea levels by ~7.4 m (24 ft).[80] Global warming between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) would likely make this melting inevitable.[85] However, 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would still cause ice loss equivalent to 1.4 m (4+1⁄2 ft) of sea level rise,[102] and more ice will be lost if the temperatures exceed that level before declining.[85] If global temperatures continue to rise, the ice sheet will likely disappear within 10,000 years.[103][104] At very high warming, its future lifetime goes down to around 1,000 years.[99]Carbon cycle
Historically, ice sheets were viewed as inert components of the
For comparison, 1400–1650 billion tonnes are contained within the Arctic
In Greenland, there is one known area, at Russell Glacier, where meltwater carbon is released into the atmosphere as methane, which has a much larger global warming potential than carbon dioxide:[108] however, it also harbours large numbers of methanotrophic bacteria, which limit those emissions.[109][110]
In geologic timescales
Normally, the transitions between glacial and interglacial states are governed by
For instance, during at least the last 100,000 years, portions of the ice sheet covering much of North America, the
Internal ice sheet "binge-purge" cycles may be responsible for the observed effects, where the ice builds to unstable levels, then a portion of the ice sheet collapses. External factors might also play a role in forcing ice sheets. Dansgaard–Oeschger events are abrupt warmings of the northern hemisphere occurring over the space of perhaps 40 years. While these D–O events occur directly after each Heinrich event, they also occur more frequently – around every 1500 years; from this evidence, paleoclimatologists surmise that the same forcings may drive both Heinrich and D–O events.[115]
Hemispheric asynchrony in ice sheet behavior has been observed by linking short-term spikes of methane in Greenland ice cores and Antarctic ice cores. During Dansgaard–Oeschger events, the northern hemisphere warmed considerably, dramatically increasing the release of methane from wetlands, that were otherwise tundra during glacial times. This methane quickly distributes evenly across the globe, becoming incorporated in Antarctic and Greenland ice. With this tie, paleoclimatologists have been able to say that the ice sheets on Greenland only began to warm after the Antarctic ice sheet had been warming for several thousand years. Why this pattern occurs is still open for debate.[116][117]
Antarctic ice sheet during geologic timescales
The icing of Antarctica began in the Late Palaeocene or middle
Greenland ice sheet during geologic timescales
While there is evidence of large glaciers in Greenland for most of the past 18 million years,[86] these ice bodies were probably similar to various smaller modern examples, such as Maniitsoq and Flade Isblink, which cover 76,000 and 100,000 square kilometres (29,000 and 39,000 sq mi) around the periphery. Conditions in Greenland were not initially suitable for a single coherent ice sheet to develop, but this began to change around 10 million years ago, during the middle Miocene, when the two passive continental margins which now form the uplands of West and East Greenland experienced uplift, and ultimately formed the upper planation surface at a height of 2000 to 3000 meter above sea level.[127][128]
Later uplift, during theSee also
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External links
- United Nations Environment Programme: Global Outlook for Ice and Snow
- http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/ice_sheets.html Archived 2012-09-16 at the Wayback Machine
- Barber, D.G.; McCullough, G.; Babb, D.; Komarov, A. S.; Candlish, L. M.; Lukovich, J. V.; Asplin, M.; Prinsenberg, S.; Dmitrenko, I.; Rysgaard, S. (2014). "Climate change and ice hazards in the Beaufort Sea" (PDF). Elementa. 2: 000025. .
- Marine Ice Sheet Instability "For Dummies"