Maritime history

Richard Hakluyt was an English writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1598–1600).

European expansion

Although Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.

When the

From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country, and treasure was brought back in special

In the 15th century, before the European Age of Discovery began, the Chinese Ming Dynasty carried out a maritime operation that, like the European's late expeditions, was primarily carried out to expand power, increase trade, and in some instances forcibly subdue local populations.^[65]

In 1405 Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, was ordered by the Ming dynasty to lead a fleet of over 27,000 sailors and anywhere between 62^[66] and 300 ships,^[65] beginning a period of expedition which would last 33 years.^[65][66] During his seven voyages, Zheng He visited over 30 countries spread out across the Indian Ocean. Under Emperor Yongle, this naval undertaking served primarily as a deliverer of letters demanding tribute and allegiance to the middle kingdom; gifts were the first approach to gaining a country's favor, but if circumstances required it Zheng He's fleet would resort to violence.^[66][65] The result was a successful connection to 48 new tribute states and an influx of over 180 new trade goods; many were gifts.^[66] These expeditions expanded China's diplomatic supremacy of the region and strengthened their economic ties in the area. When these expeditions ended, China's maritime strength diminished and lacked a powerful navy for centuries after.^[66]

Other Ming Maritime Activity

The end of the imperially-sponsored voyages, however, in no way meant that Ming people no longer put to sea. Merchants, pirates, fishermen, and others depended on boats and ships for their livelihood, and immigration to Southeast Asia, both permanent and temporary, continued throughout Ming times.^[67] Because Chinese and Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia were the main players in commerce in the South China Sea, Chinese merchants and ships were critical to the Spanish trade in Manila. Not only did Chinese merchants supply the goods the Spanish bought with their American silver, but Chinese shipbuilders built the famous galleons that carried those goods and that silver back and forth across the Pacific twice a year.^[68]

Clipper route

During this time, the

The Age of Sail originates from ancient seafaring exploration, during the rise of ancient civilizations. Including

The

Spain's rebuilt navy had quickly recovered and exceeded its pre-Armada dominance of the sea, until defeats by the Dutch fifty years later marked the beginning of its decline. With the peace, the English were able to consolidate their hold on Ireland and make a concerted effort to establish colonies in North America.

North American maritime

The

Jonathan Haraden was a privateer during the American Revolution, being the first lieutenant of the sloop-of-war Tyrannicide, fourteen guns. On board for two years, he captured many prizes, becoming her commander in 1777.

In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries a network of maritime trade formed in the Atlantic, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas through a triangular trade of African slaves, sugar/molasses, and rum.[74] This maritime trade route would enrich Europe and the Americas while also pulling both deeper into the slave trade.^[75]

European merchants would buy slaves from African slavers, transporting these slaves to their sugar plantations in the Caribbeans, where the sugar/molasses they produced would be shipped to British North America and distilled into rum where it would be consumed in the colonies and sent to Europe.^[74] In some models of triangular trade, the Colonies take Europe's place, and the model of trade shifts to Slaves from Africa to the Caribbean, sugar and molasses go to New England, and the rum/other finished goods would be sold in Africa to get more slaves.^[76] Both of these models are not restricted to sugar trade; tobacco, cotton, and other plantation based raw materials take the place of sugar, and its derivatives.

Piracy in the Atlantic Ocean

During the Age of Discovery, key trade routes to the new world formed in the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean. With this concentrated area of trade, piracy was a significant maritime hazard in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Some nations would use pirates to sabotage their rivals, going as far as supplying and recognizing them as legitimate.^[77][78] Eventually, powers like the English and Dutch implemented strong anti-piracy tactics to strengthen their trade empires in the 18th century.^[77]

In the 16th and 17th century Caribbean, the trading of slaves, precious metals, and raw materials all fell prey to piracy.^[79] Pirates would raid forts, and attack ships at sea to get possession of merchants material wealth. In some cases, pirates would tie themselves to a maritime power like the British and aid them by raiding rival nations like the Spanish and leaving British trade unmolested.^[78] In areas like Jamaica, some pirates were friendly with the British and would remain on the fringes of the colony. Some of these pirates were accepted by British colonial governors.^[78]

The English and Dutch had created extensive trade empires during the 17th and 18th century and saw pirates as a barrier to their continued growth. English began building a codification for piracy, which started a war against pirates that lasted from the 1670s ending in the 1720s. During this time the English would develop a ship called the Jamaica Sloops which were better at fending off piracy.^[79] In the late 1600s, the British began building up their navy and were able to put an end to most piracy by the 1720s violently, only isolated individual instances persisted.

Life at sea

Shipping, whether of cargo or passengers, is a business and the duties of a ship's captain reflect that. A captain's first duty was to the ship's owner and often the captain was encouraged to buy into the business with at least a one eighth share of the ship. A captain's second duty was to the cargo itself followed thirdly by the crew.

Crew were broken into two shifts that served four hour alternating watches often with all hands jointly serving the noon to 4:00 watch. American ships would commonly alternate watches with the addition of a two-hour dog watch. Work for sailors during their shift consisted primarily of general ship maintenance, washing, sanding, painting and repairs from general wear and tear or damage from storms. General ship operations like raising and lowering the anchor or furling and unfurling sails were done as needed. During the off shift hours, sailors could take care of their personal chores, washing and repairing clothes, sleeping and eating. Leisure time could was often spent reading, writing in journals, playing an instrument, wood carving or fancy rope work. The American Seaman's Friend Society in New York City would loan boxes of books to ships for sailor's use.^[80]

Life aboard ship for immigrant travelers was much harsher and sometimes deadly. Ship owners would pack as many people as they could on board to maximize profits and little government oversight existed to ensure they received proper care during the voyage. British immigrant ships would often show less care to the passengers than criminals on prison ships to Australia. In 1803 the Passenger Vessel Act in Britain limited occupancy to one person per two tons of the ship's register. America issue stricter laws in 1819 limiting ships to a 1 to 5 ratio with fine levied should an overcrowded ship arrive at port. The Act of Feb. 1847 further increased the amount of space granted to passengers with the confiscation of a ship as the penalty for overcrowding.^[81]

War of 1812

HMS Challenger, built in 1858, undertook the first global marine research expedition called the Challenger expedition in 1872. To enable her to probe the depths, all but two of Challenger's guns had been removed and her spars reduced to make more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special dredging platform were installed. She was loaded with specimen jars, alcohol for preservation of samples, microscopes and chemical apparatus, trawls and dredges, thermometers and water sampling bottles, sounding leads and devices to collect sediment from the sea bed and great lengths of rope with which to suspend the equipment into the ocean depths. In all she was supplied with 181 miles (291 km) of Italian hemp for sounding, trawling and dredging. As the first true oceanographic cruise, the Challenger expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.

End of the sail

Like most

Submarines

The

Steamships gradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping in the 19th century – mostly through the latter part of the century. Paradoxically, steam supported sail, by providing tugs that could speed the arrival of ships that would otherwise often be windbound in anchorages close to their point of departure or destination. Larger sailing vessels could be built for bulk cargoes, as the availability of tugs meant that they could be docked efficiently. Steam "donkey engines" enabled these larger ships to work with smaller crews, being used for hoisting large sails and generally doing the heavy work on the ship.^{[83]: 7–19, passim}

Steam technology required a number of developmental steps to be able to compete with sail propulsion. Better materials and designs were needed for the boilers that ran at the higher pressures that allowed the increases in fuel efficiency from, first, compound engines (successfully used in

Whilst the technology steadily improved, sail remained the most economical choice for ship-owners who wished to make a good return on the capital they had invested. Steam was an option only for a limited number of trades until the 1860s, focusing on routes requiring scheduled services and/or reliable average speeds on a voyage – and only where the customer was prepared to pay the higher costs involved. Most of this was passenger transport and mail contracts. Only when the much more fuel efficient triple expansion engine had become common (by the 1890s) were all shipping routes fully commercially viable for steamers.[83]^: 7-19

In 1880, the American passenger steamer Columbia became the first ship to utilize the dynamo and incandescent light bulb. Furthermore, Columbia was the first structure besides Thomas Edison's laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey to use the incandescent light bulb.^[88][89][90]

Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the

.

David Farragut was the first senior officer of the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He was the first rear admiral, vice admiral, and full admiral of the Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his possibly apocryphal order at the Battle of Mobile Bay, usually paraphrased: "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!".^[91]

minie ball to the thigh. He would eventually recover from his leg wound. He never did get to command Virginia against USS Monitor. That honor went to Catesby ap Roger Jones. But Buchanan had handed the US Navy the worst defeat it would take until Pearl Harbor

.

Raphael Semmes was an officer in the United States Navy from 1826 to 1860 and the Confederate States Navy from 1860 to 1865. During the American Civil War he was captain of the famous commerce raider CSS Alabama, taking a record fifty-five prizes. Late in the war he was promoted to admiral and also served briefly as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army.

In Italy,

war with Austria

when he commanded the Italian fleet at Lissa. After the defeat, he was condemned for incapacity, and discharged.

Again in America,

Key West, Florida, with all haste. After a most remarkable voyage of over 14,000 miles (23,000 km), around Cape Horn, he joined the American fleet in Cuban waters on May 26, and on July 3 commanded his ship at the destruction of Cervera

's squadron.

Admiral of the Navy

, the most senior rank in the United States Navy.

Garrett J. Pendergrast was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He commanded USS Boston during the Mexican–American War in 1846. In 1856, he commissioned USS Merrimack, the ship that would later become CSS Virginia.

Lewis Nixon was a shipbuilding executive, naval architect, and political activist. Nixon graduated first in his class from the Naval Academy in 1882 and was sent to study naval architecture at the Royal Naval College where, again, he graduated first in the class in 1885. In 1890, with help from assistant naval constructor David W. Taylor, he designed the Indiana-class battleships which included USS Indiana, USS Massachusetts and USS Oregon.

Patricio Montojo was the Spanish naval commander at the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), a decisive battle of the Spanish–American War. At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Montojo was in command of the Spanish Squadron that was destroyed by the U.S. Asiatic Squadron in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Montojo was wounded during this battle, as was also one of his two sons who were participating in this battle. United States naval forces under Commodore

George Dewey decisively defeated Spain's Pacific fleet, at anchor in Manila Bay, the Philippines. Most of the seven Spanish vessels sank or surrendered.

20th century

In the 20th century, the

Maritime Distress Safety System

.

Maritime events of World War I

Battle of Gallipoli

).

Main articles:

U-boat Campaign (World War I)

At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect allied shipping. For example, the detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron – consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau, light cruisers SMS Nürnberg and SMS Leipzig and two transport ships – did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was lost at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914.^[93]

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval blockade of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by international agreements.^[94][95] A blockade of stationed ships within a three-mile (5 km) radius was considered legitimate,^[94] however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean,^[96] causing danger to even neutral ships.^[97] Though there was limited response to this tactic, some^[98] expected a better response for German's aim with its unrestricted submarine warfare.^[99][100]

German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.^[101] The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning,^[102] giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.^[103][104] After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. In 1916 the United States launched a protest over a cross-channel passenger ferry sinking, Germany modified its rules of engagement. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas.

The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships

depth charges. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Various troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not have to travel the North Atlantic in convoys.^[107]

The First World War also saw the first use of

Tondern

in July 1918.

Maritime events of World War II

Battle of the Atlantic

Main article: Battle of the Atlantic

In the North Atlantic, German U-boats attempted to cut supply lines to the United Kingdom by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels. In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British carrier HMS Courageous, while another managed to sink the battleship HMS Royal Oak in her home anchorage of Scapa Flow.

In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of the Allies. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Western Allies attempted to remedy this by sending

North Cape

of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers, and surface ships.

Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, U-boats sank shipping along the

second happy time. Eventually, the institution of shore blackouts

and an interlocking convoy system resulted in a drop in attacks and U-boats shifted their operations back to the mid-Atlantic.

The turning point of the

Battle of North Cape, the German battleship Scharnhorst, was sunk by HMS Duke of York, HMS Belfast

, and several destroyers.

Pacific War

Main article: Pacific War

The

Southwest Pacific Area

. The British fought chiefly in the Indian Ocean. It was a war of logistics, with American home bases in California and Hawaii sending supplies to Australia. The U.S. used its submarines to sink Japanese transports and oil tankers, thereby cutting off Japan's supplies to its outposts and causing a severe shortage of gasoline.

Island hopping was the key strategy to bypass heavily fortified Japanese positions and instead concentrate the limited Allied resources on strategically important islands that were not well defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main islands of Japan. This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine and air attacks to blockade and isolate Japanese bases, weakening their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and reinforce. Most Japanese soldiers killed in the Pacific died of starvation, and Japan used its submarine fleet to try to resupply them.

Hard-fought battles on the

invasion of Japan in 1945.^[108][109] Some staff^[110] proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade or air raids.^[109][111]

See also:

South West Pacific Theatre of World War II

Latter half of the 20th century

In the latter half of the 20th century, various vessels, notably aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines, and nuclear-powered icebreakers, made use of nuclear marine propulsion. Sonar and radio augmented existing navigational technology.

Various blockades were set up in international action. Egypt blockaded of the Straits of Tiran from 1948 to 1956 and 1967. The United States set up a blockade of Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The Israelis set up a sea blockade of the Gaza Strip since the outbreak of the Second Intifada (2000) and up to the present. The Israeli blockades of some or all the shores of Lebanon at various times during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the 1982 Lebanon War, and the South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)—resumed during the 2006 Lebanon War.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis was seen as an event that brought the U.S. closest to nuclear war and nearly the end of human existence. The event was on October the 22, 1962 during the presidency of John F. Kennedy. It also happened over a 13-day period.^[112] The nuclear power of the United States had a hand in why this event occurred. From this situation, the country learned that nuclear power does not have a lot of influence in politics.^[113] The soviet leader, Klrushchv, was the first to have his missiles fall back. At the time, it did not look like the United States was going to do the same. The U.S. did not back down because an American plane had been shot down in Cuba during the event.^[114] The blockade ended when the two powers resolved the issue peacefully.^[115]

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

Main article:

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

The

Democratic Republic of Vietnam against two American warships in 1964. One night a U.S. ship was sailing in North Vietnam when they thought they were being attacked. The president at this time decided that he needed to make a statement and asked congress for permission to act on this.^[116] Congress gave him permission by approving the Gulf of Tonkin resolution on August 7, 1964. With this resolution, president Johnson was able to release missiles on North Vietnamese torpedo boats and oil storage facilities.^[117] The Resolution was repealed in January 1971.^[118]

Falklands War

Main article: Falklands War

In 1982, the Falklands War was a war over the Falkland Islands with Argentina. This was said to be a very desperate war between Britain and Argentina.

amphibious assault. Argentina ended up losing the war.^[120]

Panama canal handover

Main article:

Panama canal

Though controversial within the United States, a process of handing the

Li Ka Shing

is the wealthiest man in Asia. One of the conditions on the handover to the Panama Canal Authority by the United States was the permanent neutrality of the Canal and the explicit statements that allowed the United States to come back at any time.

21st century

Since the turn of the millennium, the construction of stealth ships have occurred. These are ships which employs stealth technology construction techniques in an effort to ensure that it is harder to detect by one or more of radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods. These techniques borrow from stealth aircraft technology, although some aspects such as wake reduction are unique to stealth ships' design.

Some of the major social changes of this period include women becoming admirals in defensive navies, being allowed to work on submarines, and being appointed captains of cruise ships.^[121]

Arctic Resources Race

Main article: Arctic resources race

As of March 2020, global superpowers are currently in competition of laying claim to both regions of the Arctic Circle and shipping routes that lead directly into the Pacific and Atlantic oceans from the North Pole. Extensive access to the sea routes of the North Pole would allow, for example, save thousands of kilometers in distance from Europe to China.^[122] Most prominently, claims to territory in the Arctic Circle would guarantee a plethora of resources; some including: oil, gas, minerals, and fish.^[123]

Piracy

Main article: Piracy

Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$13 to $16 billion per year),^[124][125] particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year.

Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small motorboats.^[126][127] Other active areas include the South China Sea and the Niger Delta. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy.

The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder.^[128] In 2007 the attacks rose by 10% to 263 attacks. There was a 35% increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.^[129] That number does not include hostages/kidnapping where they were not injured.

Modern Piracy

Aerial photograph of the Niger Delta, a center of piracy.

Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts:

• Boarding
• Extortion
• Hostage taking
• Kidnapping of people for ransom
• Murder
• Robbery
• Sabotage resulting in the ship subsequently sinking
• Seizure
  of items or the ship
• Shipwrecking done intentionally to a ship

See also

General

• Atlantic history
• Atlantic World
• Bibliography of early U.S. naval history
• Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history
• Congo River
• History of the Royal Navy
• History of whaling
• Indian maritime history
• List of museum ships
• List of former museum ships
• List of naval battles
• Maritime history of Colonial America
• Maritime history of Europe
• Maritime museum
• Maritime timeline
• Maritime transport
• Military history
• Ming treasure voyages
• Naval history
• Niger River
• Sailortowns
• Ships of ancient Rome
• Timeline of maritime migration and exploration

Historiography articles

• American Neptune
  , a scholarly journal
• Atlantic history, historiography of the Atlantic region
• Frank C. Munson Institute of American Maritime History
• International Commission for Maritime History
• North American Society for Oceanic History

References

Citations and notes

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General resources

Listed by date

• Pearson, Michael, ed. Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World (2016), Nine essays by experts; excerpt
• Pearson, Michael N. "Notes on world history and maritime history." Asian Review of World History 3#1 (2015): 137–151. online Archived 2017-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
• Catsambis, Alexis, and Ben Ford, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology (2013) excerpt
• Smith, Joshua M. “Toward a Taxonomy of Maritime Historians,” International Journal of Maritime History XXV:2 (December, 2013), 1–16
• Paine, Lincoln. The sea and civilization: a maritime history of the world (Knopf, 2013). Pp. xxxv+ 744. 72 illustrations, 17 maps. excerpt
• Tucker, Spencer C. World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia (2 vol. 2011) excerpt and text search
• Blume, Kenneth. Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Maritime Industry (2011) excerpt and text search
• Sohn, Louis B. et al. The Law of the Sea in a Nutshell (2nd ed. 2010) excerpt and text search
• Haycock, David Boyd and Sally Archer, eds. Health and Medicine at Sea, 1700–1900 (Woodbridge Boydell Press, 2009) online review
• Black, Jeremy. Naval Power: A History of Warfare and the Sea from 1500 Onwards (2009)
• O'Hara, Glen. (2009) "'The Sea is Swinging Into View'": Modern British Maritime History in a Globalised World," English Historical Review, Vol. 124 Issue 510, pp 1109–1134
• Sobecki, S. (2008) The Sea and Medieval English Literature
  ISBN 978-1-84615-591-8
• Hattendorf, John B. (4 vol. 2007) Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History
• Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. (2007) The Royal Navy 1793–1815 (Battle Orders) excerpt and text search
• Kennedy, Paul M. The Rise And Fall of British Naval Mastery (2nd ed. 2006) excerpt and text search
• Shiflett, T. D. (2005). America's Line of Battle: Its Construction & History. Tiger Lily Publications LLC.
  ISBN 0-9776072-1-6
• Callo, J. F. (2004). Who's Who in Naval History
  ISBN 0-415-30828-3
• Rasor, Eugene L. (2004) English/British Naval History to 1815: A Guide to the Literature; (1990) British Naval History after 1815: A Guide to the Literature
• Herman, Arthur. (2004) To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern World
• Friel, Ian. (2003) The British Museum Maritime History of Britain and Ireland: c. 400–2001
• Chen, Yan (2002). Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges. Beijing: Peking University Press.
  ISBN 7-301-03029-0
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• Burnett, John. (2002). Dangerous Waters: Modern Piracy and Terror on the High Seas
• Symonds, Craig L. & William J. Clipson (2001). The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy. Naval Institute Press.
  ISBN 9781557509840
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• Samson, Jane. "Maritime history" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 73–65.
  ISBN 9781884964336
  ., Historiography
• Deng, Gang. Maritime Sector, Institutions, and Sea Power of Premodern China (1999) online Archived 2017-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Labaree, Benjamin W. et al. (1998) America and the Sea: A Maritime History; 686 pp excerpt and text search; covers the men and women involved in exploring, fishing, merchant marine, the navy, coastal trade, river boats, and canals.
• Bjork, Katharine. (1998). "The Link That Kept the Philippines Spanish: Mexican Merchant Interests and the Manila Trade, 1571–1815" Journal of World History 1#1 pp. 25–50.
• Rodger, Nicholas. (1997) The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain Vol 1: 660-1649 and (2004) The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815
• Stopford, Martin. Maritime Economics (2nd ed. 1997) online Archived 2017-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Hill, J.R. (1995) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy
• De La Pedraja, René. Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Merchant Marine and Shipping Industry: Since the Introduction of Steam (1994) online Archived 2017-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Sager, Eric W. Ships and Memories: Merchant Seafarers in Canada's Age of Steam (1993) online^{[permanent dead link]}
• Love Jr., Robert W., (1992) History of the U.S. Navy (2 vol) excerpt and text search vol 1; excerpt and text search vol 2
• Chang, Pin-tsun. (1989). "The Evolution of Chinese Thought on Maritime Foreign Trade from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century," International Journal of Maritime History 1: 51–64.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Potter, E. B. (1981) Sea Power: A Naval History; worldwide combat history
• Boxer, Charles R. (1969) The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825
• Parry, J. H. (1973) The Spanish seaborne empire
• Boxer, Charles R. (1965) The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800
• Morison, S. E. (1961). The maritime history of Massachusetts, 1783–1860. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Burwash, Dorothy, English Merchant Shipping, 1460–1540 (1947) online Archived 2017-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Paine, Ralph D. The Old Merchant Marine: A Chronicle of American Ships and Sailers (1919) online Archived 2017-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Allen, G. W. (1913). A naval history of the American Revolution.
• Mahan, A. T. (1905). Sea power in its relations to the War of 1812. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.
• Maclay, E. S. (1899). A history of American privateers. New York: D. Appleton and Co.
• Mahan, A. T. (1898). The influence of seapower upon the French revolution and empire, 1793–1812. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
• Corbett, S. J. S. (1898). Drake and the Tudor navy, with a history of the rise of England as a maritime power. New York: B. Franklin.
• Mahan, A.T. (1890)
  The Influence of Sea Power Upon History: 1660-1783 thesingle most influential book online
• Scharf, J. T. (1887). History of the Confederate States navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel: Its stupendous struggle with the great navy of the United States; the engagements fought in the rivers and harbors of the South, and upon the high seas; blockade-running, first use of iron-clads and torpedoes, and privateer history.online

Primary sources

• Hattendorf, John B. et al. eds. (1991) British Naval documents, 1204–1960 (1993)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maritime history.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Influence of Sea Power upon History

• Coriolis: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Maritime Studies
• International Commission for Maritime History
• The Institute of Maritime History – a non-profit institute focused on research, preservation and education in maritime history
• Society for Nautical Research
• The Maritime History Podcast
• Federation of Maritime History and Archeology Research (Sorbonne University)
• International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobility^{[permanent dead link]}
• The Australian Association for Maritime History
• The North American Society for Oceanic History
• Greek Maritime History