Maritime history of Odisha

This article is part of a series on
Odisha
Governance
Governors Chief Ministers Legislative Assembly Political parties High Court Police
Topics
Arts Cinema Cuisine Culture Odia Hindu wedding Economy Education Elections Festivals Flora and fauna Geography Highest point History Historic sites Maritime history Rulers Language Script Act Literature Grammar People Tribes Odissi (dance) Odissi music Politics Sports Tourism
Divisions
Angul Balangir Balasore Bargarh Bhadrak Boudh Cuttack Debagarh Dhenkanal Gajapati Ganjam Jagatsinghpur Jharsuguda Jajpur Kalahandi Kandhamal Kendrapara Kendujhar Khordha Koraput Malkangiri Mayurbhanj Nabrangpur Nayagarh Nuapada Puri Rayagada Sambalpur Subarnapur Sundergarh
GI Products
Berhampur Patta Bomkai Sari Dhalapathar Parda & Fabrics Ganjam Kewda Flower Ganjam Kewda Rooh Gopalpur Tussar Fabrics Habaspuri Saree & Fabrics Khandua Konark stone carving Kotpad Handloom fabrics Odisha Ikat Pattachitra Pipili applique work Sambalpuri saree Rasgulla
India portal
v t e

The Maritime history of Odisha (

Location

Located on the eastern coast of India, the ancient state of Kalinga extended from the

The coastline is unstable. The southwest monsoon carries sediment along the coast, at times forming bars and spits that protect the harbours, at other times eroding the protective breakwaters. The rivers carry silt, extending their deltas and filling the former harbours. For this reason, some of the ports named in ancient times are no longer in existence, or have greatly declined.[7] For example, Chilika Lake was an important harbour, but later became unusable by deep water vessels due to silting.^[8]

Ports

There were two types of ports in Early Odisha. The categorisation was made on the basis of the location.^[9] They are the following:

• Pattana- These ports were situated on the sea coast where cargos were loaded and unloaded.
• Dronimukha- These ports were situated near the confluence of the river and sea.

Some of the ports mentioned by the geographer

Early history

Excavations at

culture starting around 900 BC. Tools found at this site indicate boat building, perhaps for coastal trade.[11] Fish bones, fishing hooks, barbed spears and harpoons show that fishing was an important part of the economy.^[7] Some artefacts of the Chalcolithic period are similar to artefacts found in Vietnam, indicating possible contact with Indochina at a very early period.^[11]

Early historical sources record that Kalinga became subject to Magadha in 362 BC, regained independence during a civil war in Magadha around 320 BC, but around 261 BC was conquered by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (269 BC to 232 BC).^[12] The site at Sisupalagarh, occupied from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD, has been identified with Tosali, the provincial capital of Ashoka, and with

The Bhauma-Kara dynasty ruled over Utkal, as the northern and eastern part of Odisha was then known, from the 8th to 10th centuries AD.^[12] These rulers paid tribute to Gaudeshwar

After regaining independence, Anantavarma Chodagangadeva (1078–1191) established control over a wide region from the Ganges to the Godavari,[5] moving his capital from Kalinganagar to Cuttack. The power of Odisha waxed and waned over the following centuries, but it was not until 1568 that Odisha finally lost its independence.^[12]

Ships

Rules and regulations regarding construction of ships were recorded in the Sanskrit Juktikalpataru (Yukti Kalpa Taru). The Madalapanji records that king Bhoja built many ships with local wood.^[15] The recovery of many woodworking adzes and other artefacts from Chilika Lake shows that Golabai was a boat-building center.^[11]

Terracotta seals from Bangarh and Chandraketugarh (400 BC to 100 BC) depict seagoing vessels carrying containing corn. The ships have a single mast with a square sail.^[7] The earliest depiction of ships in Odisha is in a sculptured frieze showing two ships, found near the Brahmeswara Temple, Bhubaneswar, and now preserved in the Odisha State Museum.^[16] The first ship has standing elephants in the front part, two people seated in the center and two sailor with oars at the rear steering the ship.^[11]

Sea routes

From June to September the summer monsoons blow from the southwest, from Ceylon towards Kalinga. From December to early March, the retreating monsoons blow in the reverse direction.^[17] Southeast Asia has similar seasonal wind patterns.^[18]

Over Indonesia, in July and August the winds blow from Australia in a northwesterly direction, shifting towards a northeasterly direction as they cross the equator. The pattern reverses during January and February.^[19] Early navigators would have exploited these seasonal winds, navigating by the stars, the color of the water, the presence of sea snakes, and observation of the flights of sea crows and other homing birds.^[20]

The ships of Kalinga were not able to make long sea voyages without stopping along the way for food and water. Ships outbound from

, and onward to Java or Bali, or headed northeast to Indochina or China. An alternative route was southward down the coast of India, perhaps stopping in Ceylon, then southeast to Sumatra.^[7]

Trade

Palur, near the Rushikulya River in the Ganjam district, was an important port in the 2nd century AD. Archaeological exploration has unearthed fragments of Chinese celadon ware, Roman rouletted pottery and amphora pieces, showing that the port carried out significant international trade. An unusual medallion has a

A Roman coin of the emperor Tiberius has been found at Salihundam, and other Roman coins have been found at other sites, giving further evidence of trade with the Roman Empire.^[7]

Trade with Southeast Asia was established by the 1st century AD, and may have much earlier origins. Later findings include 12th-century Ceylonese coins and 14th-century Chinese coins. Similar coins from Kotchina in

Manikapatna was a port on the banks of Chilika that flourished from early historical times until the 19th century AD. Excavations have found many types of pottery from different parts of India, and coins from Ceylon and China. The more modern levels contain Chinese celadon and porcelain, and Arabic glazed pottery. An 18th-century Mosque has an inscription saying sailors and traders prayed there before setting out on their voyages.[8]

According to a 6th-century AD source, Kalinga was famous for its elephants, for which it found a market in Ceylon, along with precious stones, ivory, pepper, betel nuts and fine textiles. In return, Kalinga imported pearl and silver from Ceylon.^[22] Corn and rice were also exported. Traders imported spices and sandalwood from the east, some if it destined for onward transport to the

A boat depicted in the Sun Temple of Konarak in the 13th century contains a giraffe, indicating trade with Africa, presumably carried on Arab vessels.^[11]

Overseas contacts

Burma

Burma went by the name of Kalingarat (Kalinga Rastra) in the 7th century BC, and there is evidence of very early settlement in the southern

. The remains of a ship excavated at Tante, near Yangon is thought to have belonged to Kalingan traders. Place names and similarities in architecture also indicate close contacts across the gulf of Bengal.^[23] The Buddhagat, the sacred scripture of Burma, describes trade with the Buddhist merchants of Kalinga, leading to missionaries coming to propagate the faith, and then to political domination of parts of coastal Burma by Kalinga during the 4th to 7th centuries AD. Coins with Hindu symbols found in

Cambodia

Emigrants from Kalinga came to Cambodia in the 3rd century BC, fleeing from the emperor Ashoka. However, after Ashoka had converted to Buddhism and sent missionaries to Cambodia, they accepted the teachings and helped establish the religion in the region.^[25] The early monuments of the

However, although some of the inscriptions at Angkor Wat in Cambodia are in Sanskrit, others are in the Kalinga script.^[27] The design of the Angkor Wat temple shows influences from the Jagannath Puri temple of Odisha.^[28]

China

The first record of trade with China is found in the account of

The Chinese pilgrim

Odisha imported silk from China, and a Chinese coin from the 8th century has been found at Sirpur.^[29] Between 813 and 818, three missions were sent from the Javanese nation of Kalinga to the court of Hsien Tung in China, bringing rarities such as a live rhinoceros, a five-coloured parrot and some black boys and girls from East Africa.^[32]

Sri Lanka

Kalinga had strong ties with Simhala (Sri Lanka). Some scholars say that the first king of Simhala,

According to the

Later history

Between the 11th and 16th centuries CE, the name Kalinga was gradually replaced by Odra Desa, Uddisa and eventually Odisha.[7] During the rule of

Arcot in the south. His successors retained their hold over an extensive territory. During the rule of Prataprudradeva, from 1497 AD to 1541 AD, the kingdom extended from the Hooghly and Midnapore districts of West Bengal to the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.^[12]

Arabian sailors began to intrude into the Bay of Bengal as early as the 8th century, and later Portuguese, Dutch, English and French ships became dominant, reducing the sailors of Odisha to the coastal trade.^[30] In 1568, the Muslim ruler of Bengal, Sulaiman Khan Karrani and then the Mughal Empire succeeded in conquering the land, ending its independence. Odisha was subsequently ceded to the

Marathas in 1751, and came under British rule during the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805).^[12]

Maritime trade declined post the reign of Gajapati Empire and also with the rising dominance of European naval powers in Asia, although minor contacts continued under the reign of Bhoi dynasty at Khurda such as noted from the Manchu language memorials and edicts depicting contacts under the reign of Qing dynasty in China, when the Qianlong Emperor received a gift from the Brahmin (Ch. Polomen 婆羅門, Ma. Bolomen) envoy of a ruler whose Manchu name was Birakišora han of Utg’ali (Ch. Wutegali bilaqishila han 烏特噶里畢拉奇碩拉汗), who is described as a ruler in Eastern India. Hence referring to Birakisore Deva I of Khurda (1736–1793) who styled himself as Gajapati, the ruler of Utkala. Many of the gosains entering Tibet from China passed through his territory when visiting the Jagannath temple at Puri.^[33] With the defeat of the Marathas in the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803^[34] and the resulting annexation of Odisha into the British Empire, ended whatever remained of the maritime trade links.

See also

• Indian maritime history
• Sadhabas, ancient mariners from the Kalinga empire at eastern India

References

1. ^ Agarwala, Nitin (2020), "The Re-Emergence of the Bay of Bengal", The Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies, 7 (2), McFarland & Company: 52
2. ^ Mohanty, PC (November 2011), Maritime Trade of Ancient Kalinga (PDF), Orissa Review, p. 41
3. ^ The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13-15. Orissa History Congress. 1995. p. 54.
4. ^ "Bali Yatra". Orissa Tourism. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
5. ^ ^{a b} Majumdar, R.C. (1996). Outline of the History of Kalinga. Asian Educational Services. p. 1, 19. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
6. ^ Sudāmā Miśra (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana.
7. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Sila Tripati. "Early Maritime Activities of Orissa on the East Coast of India: Linkages in Trade and Cultural Developments" (PDF). Marine Archaeology Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
8. ^ ^{a b} Sila Tripati & K. H. Vora. "Maritime heritage in and around Chilika Lake, Orissa: Geological evidences for its decline" (PDF). Marine Archaeology Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
9. JSTOR 44158798
10. JSTOR 44158798
11. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Sushanta Ku. Patra & Benudhar Patra. "ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE MARITIME HISTORY OF ANCIENT ORISSA" (PDF). OHRJ, Vol. XLVII, No. 2. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "BRIEF HISTORY OF ORISSA" (PDF). ORISSA REFERENCE ANNUAL – 2005. Orissa Government. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
13. ^ "The Eastern Regions". India Times. 21 May 2006. Archived from the original on 28 November 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
14. ^ "History of Orissa: The Imperial Gangas". Orissa Government. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
15. ^ Nirakar Mahalik (September 2004). "Maritime Trade of Ancient Orissa" (PDF). Orissa Review. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
16. JSTOR 44147748
17. ^ "The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast" (PDF). International Committee of the Third Workshop on Monsoons. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
18. ^ "Southeast Asian Climate". Blue Planet Biomes. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
19. ^ "Indonesia Climate". Photius Coutsoukis. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
20. ISBN 0-521-01109-4
    .
21. ^ Royal Society of New Zealand (1873). Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 5. p. 136.
22. ^ ^{a b c d} Kandarpa Patel. "MARITIME RELATION OF KALINGA WITH SRILANKA" (PDF). OHRJ, Vol. XLVII, No. 2. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
23. ^ Benudhar Patra (November 2005). "Kalinga and Burma – A Study in Ancient Relations" (PDF). Orissa Review. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
24. ISBN 1-4067-0123-8
    .
25. ISBN 81-7017-090-7
    .
26. ISBN 81-7211-048-0
    .
27. ^ Robert Needham Cust (1880). Linguistic and oriental essays: Written from the year 1840 to 1903. Trübner & co. p. 406.
28. ISBN 0-8348-0426-3
    .
29. ^
    ISBN 81-7387-075-6
    .
30. ^
    ISBN 81-7387-075-6
    .
31. ISBN 81-7017-406-6
    .
32. ISBN 0-520-05462-8
    .
33. ISBN 9782722605367
    .
34. ISBN 9788131300343
    .

External links

• Odisha State Maritime Museum