Mark Antony
Marcus Antonius | ||
---|---|---|
Octavia Minor | 40–32 BC | |
Cleopatra | 32–30 BC |
Julius Caesar
- Gallic Wars
- Caesar's Civil War
- Battle of Forum Gallorum
- Battle of Mutina
- Liberators' civil war
- Antony's Parthian War
- Antony's campaign against Armenia
- Battle of Actium
- Battle of Alexandria
Marcus Antonius (14 January 83 BC – 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony,
Antony was a relative and supporter of
Relations among the triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavian's sister, Octavia. Despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antony's relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC, disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into civil war in 31 BC when Octavian induced the republic to declare war on Cleopatra and proclaim Antony a traitor. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavian's forces at the Battle of Actium. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt where, having again been defeated at the Battle of Alexandria, they committed suicide.
With Antony dead, Octavian became the undisputed master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the title of
Early life
A member of the
According to the Roman orator
According to the historian
]Early career and occupation
In 57 BC, Antony joined the military staff of Aulus Gabinius, the Proconsul of Syria, as commander of the cavalry.[15] This appointment marks the beginning of his military career.[16] As consul the previous year, Gabinius had consented to the exile of Cicero by Antony's mentor, Publius Clodius Pulcher.
The following year, in 55 BC, Gabinius intervened in the political affairs of
While Antony was serving Gabinius in the East, the domestic political situation had changed in Rome. In 60 BC, a
During his early military service, Antony married his cousin
Service under Caesar
Gallic wars
Antony's association with
Meanwhile, the alliance among Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had effectively ended. Caesar's glory in conquering Gaul had served to further strain his alliance with Pompey,[26] who, having grown jealous of his former ally, had drifted away from Caesar and towards Cato and his allies. The domestic political situation in Rome was tense, with multiple politicians leading large street gangs. Two important ones, were led by Clodius and his rival Titus Annius Milo. In 52 BC with elections unable to be held by the gangs' open violence and obstruction from radical tribunes, Milo encountered Clodius on a road outside Rome (both with entourages), which ended with Clodius' death. The violent ad hoc funeral held for Clodius resulted in widespread rioting and the destruction of the senate house, the curia Hostilia. Elevating Pompey to restore order and hold elections, the senate induced his election as sole consul.[27] Fully secure in his political position, Pompey distanced himself from Caesar over the following years.
Antony remained on Caesar's military staff until 50 BC, helping mopping-up actions across Gaul to secure Caesar's conquest. With the war largely over, Antony was sent back to Rome to act as Caesar's protector. With the support of Caesar, Antony was appointed to the
Civil war
The feud between Caesar and Pompey erupted into open confrontation by early 49 BC. The consuls for the year,
Within days of Antony's withdrawal, 7 January 49 BC, the senate reconvened. Under the leadership of Cato and with the tacit support of Pompey, the senate passed a
Caesar's rapid advance surprised Pompey, who withdrew from Italy to Greece. After entering Rome, instead of pursuing Pompey, Caesar marched to
By the end of the year 49 BC, Caesar, already the ruler of Gaul, had captured Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia from his enemies. In early 48 BC, he prepared to sail with seven legions to Greece to face Pompey. Caesar had entrusted the defense of Illyricum to
During the Greek campaign, Plutarch records that Antony was Caesar's top general, and second only to him in reputation.
Assuming a defensive position at the plain of
Governor of Italy
After the battle, Caesar was made
While Caesar was away in Egypt, Antony remained in Rome to govern Italy and restore order.
Antony's handling of the affair with Dolabella led to a cooling of his relationship with Caesar. Antony's violent reaction had caused Rome to fall into a state of
Following the scandal with Dolabella, Antony had divorced his second wife and quickly married
Assassination of Caesar
Ides of March
Whatever conflicts existed between himself and Caesar, Antony remained faithful to Caesar, ensuring their estrangement did not last long. Antony reunited with Caesar at
Soon after they assumed office together, the
When Antony offered Caesar the crown, there had been minor applause but mostly silence from the crowd. When Caesar refused it, however, the crowd was enthusiastic.[54] The event presented a powerful message: a diadem was a symbol of a king. By refusing it, Caesar demonstrated he had no intention of making himself king. Antony's motive for such actions is not clear and it is unknown if he acted with Caesar's prior approval or on his own.[53] While commonly described as an event that was "scripted", who was central to planning it is unclear. One argument is that Antony moved forward with the gesture on his own accord, possibly to embarrass or flatter Caesar. A later claim was that he was actually trying to convince Caesar not to go through with a kingship. By other accounts, it was Caesar's enemies who planned the incident as a way to frame him, with it being claimed two enemies of Caesar approached him to argue he should take the diadem. Another theory, one especially popular at the time, was that Caesar himself had orchestrated the event to test public support on him becoming king.[55]
A group of senators resolved to kill Caesar to prevent him from establishing a monarchy. Chief among them were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot, winning over the chief assassins to the cause of tyrannicide, Brutus, with his family's history of deposing Rome's kings, became their leader.[56] Cicero, though not personally involved in the conspiracy, later claimed Antony's actions sealed Caesar's fate as such an obvious display of Caesar's preeminence motivated them to act.[57] Originally, the conspirators had planned to eliminate not only Caesar but also many of his supporters, including Antony, but Brutus rejected the proposal, limiting the conspiracy to Caesar alone.[58] With Caesar preparing to depart for Parthia in late March, the conspirators prepared to act when Caesar appeared for the senate meeting on the Ides of March (15 March).
Antony also went with Caesar, but was waylaid at the door of the Theatre of Pompey by Trebonius and was distracted from aiding Caesar. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the senate, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.[59] The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support. Within moments, the group of five conspirators stabbed Caesar one by one. Caesar attempted to get away, but, being drenched by blood, he tripped and fell. According to Roman historian Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. Caesar was stabbed 23 times and died from the blood loss attributable to multiple stab wounds.[60][61]
Leader of the Caesarians
In the turmoil surrounding the assassination, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing Caesar's death would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome. The conspirators, who styled themselves the liberatores ("liberators"), had barricaded themselves on the Capitoline hill. Although they believed Caesar's death would restore the Republic, Caesar had been immensely popular with the Roman middle and lower classes, who became enraged upon learning a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion.
Antony, as the sole consul, soon took the initiative and seized the state treasury.
On 19 March, Caesar's will was opened and read. In it, Caesar posthumously adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius and named him his principal heir. Then only nineteen years old and stationed with Caesar's army in Macedonia, the youth became a member of Caesar's gens Julia with the name "Gaius Julius Caesar"; for clarity, it is historical convention to call him Octavian. Though not the chief beneficiary, Antony did receive some bequests.[67]
Shortly after the compromise was reached, as a sign of good faith, Brutus, against the advice of Cassius and Cicero, agreed Caesar would be given a public funeral and his will would be validated. Caesar's funeral was held on 20 March. Antony, as Caesar's faithful lieutenant and incumbent consul, was chosen to preside over the ceremony and to recite a
Despite the provisions of Caesar's will, Antony proceeded to act as leader of the Caesarians, including appropriating for himself a portion of Caesar's fortune rightfully belonging to Octavian. Antony enacted the
First conflict with Octavian
Octavian arrived in Rome in May to claim his inheritance. Although Antony had amassed political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the Caesarian faction. The senate increasingly viewed Antony as a new tyrant; Antony had also lost the support of many supporters of Caesar when he opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.[70] When Antony refused to relinquish Caesar's vast fortune to him, Octavian borrowed heavily to fulfill the bequests in Caesar's will to the Roman people and to his veterans, as well as to establish his own bodyguard of veterans.[71] This earned him the support of Caesarian sympathizers who hoped to use him as a means of eliminating Antony.[72] The senate, and Cicero in particular, viewed Antony as the greater danger of the two. By summer 44 BC, Antony was in a difficult political position: he could either denounce the liberatores as murderers and alienate the senate or he could maintain his support for the compromise and risk betraying Caesar's legacy, strengthening Octavian's position. In either case, his situation as ruler of Rome would be weakened. Roman historian Cassius Dio later recorded that while Antony, as consul, maintained the advantage in the relationship, the general affection of the Roman people was shifting to Octavian due to his status as Caesar's son.[73][74]
Supporting the senatorial faction against Antony, Octavian, in September 44 BC, encouraged the eminent senator
Ratifying Octavian's extraordinary command on 1 January 43 BC, the senate dispatched him along with consuls
The Second Triumvirate
Forming the alliance
With Antony defeated, the senate assigned command of the legions in northern Italy to Decimus.
By mid-May, Octavian began secret negotiations to form an alliance with Antony to unify the Caesarians against the liberatores. Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Octavian dispatched emissaries to Rome in July 43 BC demanding he be appointed consul to succeed Hirtius and Pansa and that the senate rescind the decree declaring Antony a public enemy.[87] When the senate refused, Octavian marched on Rome with his eight legions and assumed control of the city in August 43 BC. Octavian had himself irregularly elected consul with a cousin, rewarded his soldiers, and then set about prosecuting Caesar's murderers. Under the lex Pedia, all of the conspirators and Sextus Pompey were convicted "in absentia" and declared public enemies. Then, at the instigation of Lepidus, Octavian went to Cisalpine Gaul to meet Antony.
In November 43 BC, Octavian, Lepidus, and Antony met near Bononia.[88] After two days of discussions, the group agreed to establish a three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years, known to modern historians as the Second Triumvirate. They shared military command of the republic's armies and provinces among themselves: Antony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain, and Octavian (as the junior partner) Africa. They jointly governed Italy. The triumvirate would have to conquer the rest of Rome's holdings; Brutus and Cassius held the Eastern Mediterranean, and Sextus Pompey held the Mediterranean islands.[89] On 27 November 43 BC, the triumvirate was formally established by a new law, the lex Titia. Octavian and Antony reinforced their alliance through Octavian's marriage to Antony's stepdaughter, Claudia.
The primary objective of the triumvirate was to avenge Caesar's death and to make war upon his murderers. Before marching against Brutus and Cassius in the East, the triumvirs issued
War against the Liberators
Due to the infighting within the triumvirate during 43 BC, Brutus and Cassius had assumed control of much of Rome's eastern territories, and amassed a large army. Before the triumvirate could cross the
In the summer of 42 BC, Octavian and Antony sailed for Macedonia to face the liberatores with nineteen legions, the vast majority of their army[91] (approximately 100,000 regular infantry plus supporting cavalry and irregular auxiliary units), leaving Rome under the administration of Lepidus. Likewise, the army of the liberatores also commanded an army of nineteen legions; their legions, however, were not at full strength while the legions of Antony and Octavian were.[91] While the triumvirs commanded a larger number of infantry, the Liberators commanded a larger cavalry contingent.[92] The liberatores, who controlled Macedonia, did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the Triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest and had gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the Eastern provinces and levies from Rome's client kingdoms.
Brutus and Cassius held a position on the high ground along both sides of the via Egnatia west of the city of Philippi. The south position was anchored to a supposedly impassable marsh, while the north was bordered by impervious hills. They had plenty of time to fortify their position with a rampart and a ditch. Brutus put his camp on the north while Cassius occupied the south of the via Egnatia. Antony arrived shortly and positioned his army on the south of the via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road. Antony offered battle several times, but the liberatores were not lured to leave their defensive stand. Thus, Antony tried to secretly outflank the Brutus and Cassius' position through the marshes in the south. This provoked a pitched battle on 3 October 42 BC. Antony commanded the triumvirate's army due to Octavian's sickness on the day, with Antony directly controlling the right flank opposite Cassius. Because of his health, Octavian remained in camp while his lieutenants assumed a position on the left flank opposite Brutus. In the resulting first battle of Philippi, Antony defeated Cassius and captured his camp while Brutus overran Octavian's troops and penetrated into the Triumvirs' camp but was unable to capture the sick Octavian. The battle was a tactical draw, but due to poor communications Cassius believed the battle was a complete defeat and committed suicide to prevent being captured.
Brutus assumed sole command of the army and preferred a war of attrition over open conflict. His officers, however, were dissatisfied with these defensive tactics and his Caesarian veterans threatened to defect, forcing Brutus to give battle at the second battle of Philippi on 23 October. While the battle was initially evenly matched, Antony's leadership routed Brutus' forces. Brutus committed suicide the day after the defeat and the remainder of his army swore allegiance to the Triumvirate. Over fifty thousand Romans died in the two battles. While Antony treated the losers mildly, Octavian dealt cruelly with his prisoners and even beheaded Brutus' corpse.[93][94][95]
The battles of Philippi ended the civil war in favor of the triumvirs. With the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, only Sextus Pompey and his fleet remained to challenge the triumvirate's control of the Roman world.
Master of the Roman East
Division of the republic
The victory at Philippi left the members of the triumvirate as masters of the republic, save Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Upon returning to Rome, the triumvirate repartitioned rule of Rome's provinces among themselves, with Antony as the clear senior partner. He received the largest distribution, governing all of the Eastern provinces while retaining Gaul in the West. Octavian's position improved, as he received Spain, which was taken from Lepidus. Lepidus was then reduced to holding only Africa, and he assumed a clearly tertiary role in the triumvirate. Rule over Italy remained undivided, but Octavian was assigned the difficult and unpopular task of demobilizing their veterans and providing them with land distributions in Italy.[96][97] Antony assumed direct control of the East while he installed one of his lieutenants as the ruler of Gaul. During his absence, several of his supporters held key positions in Rome to protect his interests there.
The East was in need of reorganization. In addition, Rome contended with the Parthian Empire for dominance of the Near East. The Parthian threat to the triumvirate's rule was urgent due to the fact that the Parthians supported the liberatores in the recent civil war, aid which included the supply of troops at Philippi.[98] As ruler of the East, Antony also assumed responsibility for overseeing Caesar's planned invasion of Parthia to avenge the defeat of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
In 42 BC, the Roman East was composed of several directly controlled provinces and
- Odrysian Thrace in Eastern Europe
- The Bosporan Kingdom along the northern coast of the Black Sea
- Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, and several smaller kingdoms in Asia Minor
- Nabataean kingdom in the Middle East
- Ptolemaic Egypt in Africa
Activities in the East
Antony spent the winter of 42 BC in
Ruling from Ephesus, Antony consolidated Rome's hegemony in the East, receiving envoys from Rome's client kingdoms and intervening in their dynastic affairs, extracting enormous financial "gifts" from them in the process. Though King Deiotarus of Galatia supported Brutus and Cassius following Caesar's assassination, Antony allowed him to retain his position. He also confirmed Ariarathes X as king of Cappadocia after the execution of his brother Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia by Cassius before the Battle of Philippi. In Hasmonean Judea, several Israelite delegations complained to Antony of the harsh rule of Phasael and Herod, the sons of Rome's assassinated chief minister in the territory of Judaea, who was an Edomite called Antipater the Idumaean. After Herod offered him a large financial gift, Antony confirmed the brothers in their positions. Subsequently, influenced by the beauty and charms of Glaphyra, the widow of Archelaüs (formerly the high priest of Comana), Antony deposed Ariarathes X, and appointed Glaphyra's son, Archelaüs, to rule Cappadocia.[101]
In October 41, Antony requested Rome's chief eastern vassal, the queen of Ptolemaic Egypt
Antony, in his first months in the East, raised money, reorganized his troops, and secured the alliance of Rome's client kingdoms. He also promoted himself as Hellenistic ruler, which won him the affection of the Greek peoples of the East but also made him the target of Octavian's propaganda in Rome. According to some ancient authors, Antony led a carefree life of luxury in Alexandria.[104][105] Upon learning the Parthian Empire had invaded Rome's territory in early 40 BC, Antony left Egypt for Syria to confront the invasion. However, after a short stay in Tyre, he was forced to sail with his army to Italy to confront Octavian due to Octavian's war against Antony's wife and brother.
Fulvia's civil war
Following the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, while Antony was stationed in the East, Octavian had authority over the West.[note 4] Octavian's chief responsibility was distributing land to tens of thousands of Caesar's veterans who had fought for the Triumvirate. Additionally, tens of thousands of veterans who had fought for the Republican cause in the war also required land grants. This was necessary to ensure they would not support a political opponent of the triumvirate.[106] However, the triumvirs did not possess sufficient state-controlled land to allot to the veterans. This left Octavian with two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who might back a military rebellion against the triumvirate's rule. Octavian chose the former.[107] As many as eighteen Roman towns through Italy were affected by the confiscations of 41 BC, with entire populations driven out.[108]
Led by
The conflict between Octavian and Fulvia caused great political and social unrest throughout Italy. Tensions escalated into open war, however, when Octavian divorced Claudia, Fulvia's daughter from her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Outraged, Fulvia, supported by Lucius, raised an army to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. According to the ancient historian Appian, Fulvia's chief reason for the war was her jealousy of Antony's affairs with Cleopatra in Egypt and desire to draw Antony back to Rome.[112] Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian and Lepidus, however, as the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries.[108] Lucius and Fulvia, supported by their army, marched on Rome and promised the people an end to the triumvirate in favor of Antony's sole rule. However, when Octavian returned to the city with his army, the pair were forced to retreat to Perusia in Etruria. Octavian placed the city under siege while Lucius waited for Antony's legions in Gaul to come to his aid.[113][110] Away in the East and embarrassed by Fulvia's actions, Antony gave no instructions to his legions.[114][note 5] Without reinforcements, Lucius and Fulvia were forced to surrender in February 40 BC. While Octavian pardoned Lucius for his role in the war and even granted him command in Spain as his chief lieutenant there, Fulvia was forced to flee to Greece with her children. With the war over, Octavian was left in sole control over Italy. When Antony's governor of Gaul died, Octavian took over his legions there, further strengthening his control over the West.[115]
Despite the Parthian Empire's invasion of Rome's eastern territories, Fulvia's civil war forced Antony to leave the East and return to Rome in order to secure his position. Meeting her in Athens, Antony rebuked Fulvia for her actions before sailing on to Italy with his army to face Octavian, laying siege to
Antony's Parthian War
Roman–Parthian relations
The rise of the Parthian Empire in the 3rd century BC and Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean during the 2nd century BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of tumultuous and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a constant threat. Influence over the buffer state of the Kingdom of Armenia, located to the north-east of Roman Syria, was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, Tigranes the Great, a Parthian ally, became king. Tigranes would later aid Mithradates of Pontus against Rome before being decisively defeated by Pompey in 66 BC.[119] Thereafter, with his son Artavasdes in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC. Rome then released Artavasdes, who succeeded his father as king.
In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria,
In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the
In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered Palmyra on the Roman-Parthian border.[125] Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the Syrian border against Parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troops and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade.
Parthian Invasion
A Parthian army, led by Orodes II's eldest son
Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the Parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of
In the spring of 38 BC, the Parthians resumed their offensive with Pacorus leading an army across the Euphrates. Ventidius, in order to gain time, leaked
Ventidius feared Antony's wrath if he invaded Parthian territory, thereby stealing his glory; so instead he attacked and subdued the eastern kingdoms, which had revolted against Roman control following the disastrous defeat of Crassus at Carrhae.
Conflict with Sextus Pompey
While Antony and the other triumvirs ratified the
While Octavian wanted an end to the ongoing blockade of Italy, Antony sought peace in the West in order to make the Triumvirate's legions available for his service in his planned campaign against the Parthians. Though the Triumvirs rejected Sextus' initial request to replace Lepidus as the third man in the triumvirate, they did grant other concessions. Under the terms of the
The peace with Sextus was short-lived, however. When Sextus demanded control over Greece as the agreement provided, Antony demanded the province's tax revenues be to fund the Parthian campaign. Sextus refused.[136] Meanwhile, Sextus' admiral Menas betrayed him, shifting his loyalty to Octavian and thereby granting him control of Corsica, Sardinia, three of Sextus' legions, and a larger naval force. These actions worked to renew Sextus' blockade of Italy, preventing Octavian from sending the promised troops to Antony for the Parthian campaign. This new delay caused Antony to quarrel with Octavian, forcing Octavia to mediate a truce between them. Under the Treaty of Tarentum, Antony provided a large naval force for Octavian's use against Sextus while Octavian promised to raise new legions for Antony to support his invasion of Parthia.[137] As the term of the Triumvirate was set to expire at the end of 38 BC, the two unilaterally extended their term of office another five years until 33 BC without seeking approval of the senate or the assemblies. To seal the Treaty, Antony's elder son Marcus Antonius Antyllus, then only 6 years old, was betrothed to Octavian's only daughter Julia, then only an infant. With the Treaty signed, Antony returned to the East, leaving Octavia in Italy.
Reconquest of Judea
With
Advancing south, Sosius captured the island-city of
Parthian Campaign
With the triumvirate renewed in 38 BC, Antony returned to Athens in the winter with his new wife
Antony, however, realized Octavian had no intention of sending him the additional legions he had promised under the Treaty of Tarentum. To supplement his own armies, Antony instead looked to Rome's principal vassal in the East: his lover Cleopatra. In addition to significant financial resources, Cleopatra's backing of his Parthian campaign allowed Antony to amass the largest army Rome had ever assembled in the East. Wintering in Antioch during 37, Antony's combined Roman–Egyptian army numbered some 100,000, including 60,000 soldiers from sixteen legions, 10,000 cavalry from Spain and Gaul, plus an additional 30,000 auxiliaries.[142] The size of his army indicated Antony's intention to conquer Parthia, or at least receive its submission by capturing the Parthian capital of Ecbatana. Antony's rear was protected by Rome's client kingdoms in Anatolia, Syria, and Judea, while the client kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Commagene would provide supplies along the march.
Antony's first target for his invasion was the
With Armenia and the Caucasus secured, Antony marched south, crossing into the Parthian province of
The retreat soon proved a disaster as Antony's demoralized army faced increasing supply difficulties in the mountainous terrain during winter while constantly being harassed by the Parthian army. According to Plutarch, eighteen battles were fought between the retreating Romans and the Parthians during the month-long march back to Armenia, with approximately 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry dying during the retreat alone. Once in Armenia, Antony quickly marched back to Syria to protect his interests there by late 36 BC, losing an additional 8,000 soldiers along the way. In all, two-fifths of his original army (some 80,000 men) had died during his failed campaign.[143] The narration of Strabo and Plutarch blames the Armenian king for the defeat, but modern sources note Antony's poor management.[144]
Antony and Cleopatra
Meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. Octavian forced Lepidus to resign after the older triumvir attempted to take control of Sicily after the defeat of Sextus. Now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the aristocracy to his side. He married Livia and started to attack Antony. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of Egypt. Antony was accused of everything, but most of all, of "going native",[citation needed] an unforgivable crime to the proud Romans. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra.[145]
Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a mock Roman triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian.
He distributed kingdoms among his children:
While the distribution of nations among Cleopatra's children was hardly a conciliatory gesture, it did not pose an immediate threat to Octavian's political position. Far more dangerous was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar's name. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through
During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges: of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots, as was Rome's tradition, and of starting wars against foreign nations (Armenia and Parthia) without the consent of the senate.
Antony was also held responsible for Sextus Pompey's execution without a trial. In 32 BC, the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed. Octavian and other Roman Senators believed that turning the hostilities towards Cleopatra as the villain would gather the most support from Romans for war. Contributing to this would be the years of propaganda against Cleopatra published by the Romans, dating back to the days of Julius Caesar. Octavian, informed of Antony's will by two Antonian defectors, sacrilegiously raided the Temple of Vesta to secure it. The will, which some modern scholars have suggested was partially forged – largely on legal grounds – is never so described in the ancient sources. Octavian's publication of the will's provisions, which named Antony and Cleopatra's children as heirs and directed his burial in Alexandria, was used as a political weapon in Rome to declare war against Cleopatra and Egypt as a whole.[146] This was the perfect summation of their attacks on the woman Antony loved and they believed threatened their republic. Both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius (both Antony's men), and a third of the senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece.
In 31 BC, the war started. Octavian's general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On 2 September, the naval Battle of Actium took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was overwhelmed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships.
Death
Octavian, now close to absolute power, invaded Egypt with Agrippa in August of 30 BC. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony stabbed himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms.
Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony's burial rites after she had been captured by Octavian. Realising that she was destined for Octavian's triumph in Rome, she made several attempts to take her life and finally succeeded in mid-August. Octavian had Caesarion and Antyllus killed, but he spared Iullus as well as Antony's children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome.
Aftermath and legacy
Cicero's son, Cicero Minor, announced Antony's death to the senate.[149] Antony's honours were revoked and his statues removed,[150] but he was not subject to a complete damnatio memoriae.[151] Cicero's son also made a decree that no member of the Antonii would ever bear the name Marcus again.[152] "In this way Heaven entrusted the family of Cicero the final acts in the punishment of Antony."[153]
When Antony died, Octavian became uncontested ruler of Rome. In the following years, Octavian, who was known as
The rise of Caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most powerful adherents effectively ended the credibility of the Roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured that all future power struggles would centre upon which one individual would achieve supreme control of the government, eliminating the senate and the former magisterial structure as important foci of power in these conflicts. Thus, in history, Antony appears as one of Caesar's main adherents, he and Octavian being the two men around whom power coalesced following the assassination of Caesar, and finally as one of the three men chiefly responsible for the demise of the republic.[154]
Marriages and issue
Antony was known to have an obsession with women and sex.[155][156] He had many mistresses (including Cytheris) and was married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, Octavia and Cleopatra. He left a number of children.[157][158] Through his daughters by Octavia, he would be ancestor to the Roman emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero.
- Marriage to Fadia, a daughter of a freedman. According to Cicero, Fadia bore Antony several children. Nothing is known about Fadia or their children. Cicero is the only Roman source that mentions Antony's first wife.
- Marriage to first paternal cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor, daughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida. According to Plutarch, Antony threw her out of his house in Rome because she slept with his friend, the tribune Publius Cornelius Dolabella. This occurred by 47 BC and Antony divorced her. By Antonia, he had a daughter:
- Antonia, married the wealthy Greek Pythodoros of Tralles.
- Marriage to Fulvia, by whom he had two sons:
- Marcus Antonius Antyllus, murdered by Octavian in 30 BC.
- Claudia Marcella the Elder, daughter of Octavia.
- Marriage to Octavia the Younger, sister of Octavian, later emperor Augustus; they had two daughters:
- Valeria Messalina and paternal grandmother of the emperor Nero.
- Livia Drusilla and brother of the emperor Tiberius; mother of the emperor Claudius, paternal grandmother of the emperor Caligula and empress Agrippina the Younger, and maternal great-grandmother of the emperor Nero.
- Children with the Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, the former lover of Julius Caesar:
- Alexander Helios
- Cleopatra Selene II, married King Juba II of Numidia and later Mauretania; the queen of Syria, Zenobia of Palmyra, was reportedly descended from Selene and Juba II.
- Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Descendants
Through his daughters by Octavia, he was the paternal great grandfather of Roman emperor Caligula, the maternal grandfather of emperor Claudius, and both maternal great-great-grandfather and paternal great-great uncle of the emperor Nero of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Through his eldest daughter, he was ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman client kingdom, as well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony was ancestor to the royal family of Mauretania, another Roman client kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he was ancestor to several famous Roman statesmen.
- 1. Antonia, born 50 BC, had 1 child
- A. Pythodorida of Pontus, 30 BC or 29 BC – 38 AD, had 3 children
- I. Artaxias III, King of Armenia, 13 BC – 35 AD, died without issue
- II. Polemon II, King of Pontus, 12 BC or 11 BC – 74 AD, died without issue
- III. Antonia Tryphaena, Queen of Thrace, 10 BC – 55 AD, had 4 children
- a. Rhoemetalces II, King of Thrace, died 38 AD, died without issue
- b. Gepaepyris, Queen of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 2 children
- i. Tiberius Julius Mithridates, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 68 AD, died without issue
- ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child
- i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 90 AD, had 1 child
- i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child
- i. Tiberius Julius Cotys II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child
- i.
- i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 90 AD, had 1 child
- A.
- 2. Marcus Antonius Antyllus, 47–30 BC, died without issue
- 3. Iullus Antonius, 43–2 BC, had 3 children
- A. Antonius, died young, no issue
- B. Lucius Antonius, 20 BC – 25 AD, issue unknown
- C. Iulla Antonia ?? born after 19 BC, issue unknown
- 4. Prince Alexander Helios of Egypt, born 40 BC, died without issue (presumably)[159]
- 5. Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania, 40 BC – 6 AD, had 2 children
- A. Ptolemy, King of Mauretania, 1 BC – 40 AD, had 1 child
- I. Drusilla, 38–79 AD, had 1 child
- a. Gaius Julius Alexion, King of Emesa, had 1 child
- I. Drusilla, 38–79 AD, had 1 child
- B. A daughter, born around 9 BC
- A. Ptolemy, King of Mauretania, 1 BC – 40 AD, had 1 child
- 6. Antonia Major, 39 BC – before 25 AD, had 3 children
- A. Domitia Lepida the Elder, c. 19 BC – 59 AD, had 1 child
- B. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, 17 BC – 40 AD, had 1 child
- I. Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) (see line of Antonia Minor below)
- C. Domitia Lepida the Younger, 10 BC – 54 AD, had 3 children
- I. Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus
- II. Valeria Messalina, 17 or 20–48 AD, had 2 children
- a. (Messalina was the mother of the two youngest children of the Roman emperor Claudius listed below)
- III. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, 22–62 AD, had 1 child
- a. a son (this child and the only child of the Claudia Antonia listed below are the same person)
- I.
- A.
- 7. Antonia Minor, 36 BC – 37 AD, had 3 children
- A. Germanicus Julius Caesar, 15 BC – 19 AD, had 6 children
- I. Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus, 6–30 AD, died without issue
- II. Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus, 8–33 AD, died without issue
- III. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula), 12–41 AD, had 1 child;
- a. Julia Drusilla, 39–41 AD, died young
- IV. Julia Agrippina (Agrippina the Younger), 15–59 AD, had 1 child;
- a. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 37–68 AD, had 1 child;
- i. Claudia Augusta, January 63 AD – April 63 AD, died young
- a. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 37–68 AD, had 1 child;
- V. Julia Drusilla, 16–38 AD, died without issue
- VI. Julia Livilla, 18–42 AD, died without issue
- B. Claudia Livia Julia (Livilla), 13 BC – 31 AD, had three children
- I. Julia Livia, 7–43 AD, had 4 children
- a. Rubellius Plautus, 33–62 AD, had several children[160]
- b. Gaius Rubellius Blandus
- c. Rubellius Drusus
- II. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, 19–37 or 38 AD, died without issue
- III. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus II Gemellus, 19–23 AD, died young
- I. Julia Livia, 7–43 AD, had 4 children
- C. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 10 BC – 54 AD, had 4 children
- I. Tiberius Claudius Drusus, died young
- II. Claudia Antonia, c. 30–66 AD, had 1 child
- a. a son, died young
- III. Claudia Octavia, 39 or 40–62 AD, died without issue
- IV. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus, 41–55 AD, died without issue
- I.
- A. Germanicus Julius Caesar, 15 BC – 19 AD, had 6 children
- 8. Prince Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, 36–29 BC, died without issue (presumably)[159]
Artistic portrayals
Works in which the character of Mark Antony plays a central role:
- William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar
- Julius Caesar (1950 film) based on this (played by Charlton Heston)
- Julius Caesar (1953 film) based on this (played by Marlon Brando)
- Julius Caesar (1970 film) based on this (played by Charlton Heston again)
- Antony and Cleopatra, several works with that title
- John Dryden's 1677 play All for Love
- Jules Massenet's 1914 opera Cléopâtre
- The 1934 film Cleopatra (played by Henry Wilcoxon)
- Orson Welles' innovative 1937 adaptation of William Shakespeare at Mercury Theatre has George Coulouris as Marcus Antonius.[161]
- The 1953 film Serpent of the Nile (played by Raymond Burr)
- The 1963 film Cleopatra (played by Richard Burton)
- The 1964 film Carry On Cleo (played by Sid James)
- The 1983 miniseries The Cleopatras (played by Christopher Neame)
- The TV series Xena: Warrior Princess (played by Manu Bennett)
- In the Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome, Mark Antony featured as a short swordsman.
- The 1999 film Cleopatra (played by Billy Zane)
- The Capcom video game Shadow of Rome, in which he is depicted as the main antagonist
- The 2003 TV movie Imperium: Augustus (played by Massimo Ghini)
- The 2005 TV mini series Empire (played by Vincent Regan)
- The 2005–2007 HBO/BBC TV series Rome (played by James Purefoy)
- The 2009–2013 TV series Horrible Histories (played by Mathew Baynton), and the 2015 reboot series of the same name (portrayed by Tom Stourton in 2019)
- The 2006 BBC One docudrama Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (played by Alex Ferns)
- As Cleopatra's guardian and level boss (of Lust) in the Xbox 360 game Dante's Inferno released by Visceral Games in 2010.
- The Choices: Stories You Play visual novel A Courtesan of Rome, in which he is depicted as one of the love interests.
- The 2021 TV series Domina (played by Liam Garrigan)
- 2023 Netflix TV series African Queens, portrayed by Craig Russell.
Novels
- In Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series (1990–2007), Antony is portrayed as a deeply flawed character, a brave warrior but sexually promiscuous, often drunk and foolish, and a monster of vanity who loves riding in a chariot drawn by lions.
- Margaret George's The Memoirs of Cleopatra (1997)
- Conn Iggulden's Emperor novels (2003–13)
- Robert Harris's Dictator (2015)
- Michael Livingston's The Shards of Heaven (2015)[162][163]
Poetry
- Geoffrey Chaucer's fourteenth-century poem The Legend of Good Women.
- Lytle, William Haines (1826–1863), Antony and Cleopatra.
- Constantine P. Cavafy's poem The God Abandons Antony (1911), a hymn to human dignity, depicts the imaginary last moments of Mark Antony while he sees his fortunes turning around.
See also
- cult of Caesar, of which Mark Antony was the first to serve.
- Antonia gens, the ancestral gens of Mark Antony.
Notes
- dies vitiosus ("defective" day), is explained by Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–2188. 14 January is accepted as Antony's birthday also by C.B.R. Pelling, Plutarch: Life of Antony (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 299, commentary to Plutarch, Antony 73.5; Nikos Kokkino, Antonia Augusta (Routledge, 1992), p. 11; Pat Southern, Mark Antony (Tempus, 1998), p. ii; Adrian Goldsworthy, Antony and Cleopatra (Yale University Press, 2010), n.p.. According to Suetonius (Claudius 11.3), the emperor Claudius, Antony's grandson through maternal lineage, evaded the prohibition on commemorating Antony's birthday by calculations showing that had he been born under the Julian calendar he would have shared his birthday with Drusus, the emperor's father. Drusus was born in late March or early April, based on a reference that he was born "within the third month" after his mother Livia married Augustus on 17 January; G. Radke, "Der Geburtstag des älteren Drusus," Wurzburger Jahrbucher fur die Altertumswissenschaft 4 (1978), pp. 211–213, proposed that a birth date of 28 March for Drusus would resolve the chronological difficulties. Radke's proposal is summarized in English by the commentary on Suetonius' sentence by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 106, and by Marleen B. Flory, "The Symbolism of Laurel in Cameo Portraits of Livia," in Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome (University of Michigan Press, 1995), vol. 40, p. 56, note 48.
- ^ Cicero is the only ancient source to mention a first marriage to an otherwise unknown Fadia (Philippics, XIII, 10)
- ^ Ancient writers (e.g. Appian, Civil Wars 5.8.1) place the beginning of their famous romance at this meeting with Antony totally surrendering to Cleopatra's beauty but modern historians reject this notion as retrospective historical propaganda on the part of Augustus.
- ^ Lepidus, though still a member of the Triumvirate, was relegated to a junior position within the three-man dictatorship as Antony and Octavian established themselves.
- ^ It is also speculated that Antony's legions, composed largely of Caesarian veterans, did not wish to fight the adoptive son of their former general.
- ^ After celebrating his triumph, Ventidius disappears from the historical record.
References
Citations
- ^ Also spelled as "Marc Antony"
- ^ "Mark Antony". HISTORY. 24 October 2019.
- ^ Plutarch, Life of Antony 86.5.
- ^ Suerbaum 1980, 327–334.
- ^ a b Huzar 1978, p. 14
- ^ Goldsworthy, 2010, p. 39
- ^ a b Huzar 1978, p. 15
- ^ a b Scullard 1980, p. 154
- ^ Huzar 1978, p. 17
- ^ Eyben 1993, p. 236
- ^ "In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight". ZME Science. 24 August 2018. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
- ^ History, Mindy Weisberger 2018-09-02T12:12:50Z (2 September 2018). "Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too". livescience.com. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
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- Plutarch's Parallel Lives: "Pompey" ~ Internet Classics Archive (MIT)
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- Suerbaum, Werner (1980). "Merkwürdige Geburtstage". Chiron (10): 327–55.
- Southern, Pat (1998). Mark Antony. Stroud: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-1406-2.
- Southern, Pat (2001). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-4152-5855-3.
- Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Clarendon.
- Walker, Susan (2008). "Cleopatra in Pompeii". Papers of the British School at Rome. 76: 35–46, 345–348. .
- Weigall, Arthur (1931). The Life and Times of Marc Antony. New York: G.P. Putnam and Sons.
- Wilson, Mark (2021). Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. OCLC 1243162549.
- ISBN 1-86197-741-7.
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antonius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
External links
- M. Antonius (30) M. f. M. n. in the Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic.
- Chaumont, M. L. (1986). "Antony, Mark". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2. pp. 136–138.
- MarkAntony.org Archived 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Shakespeare's Funeral Oration of Mark Antony in English and Latin translation Archived 26 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- The Life of Marc Antony, in BTM Format