Martyr
A martyr (Greek: μάρτυς, mártys, 'witness' stem μαρτυρ-, martyr-) is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party.
In the martyrdom narrative of the remembering community, this refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of an individual by an oppressor. Accordingly, the status of the 'martyr' can be considered a
Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership and heroism in the face of difficult circumstances. Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had notable effects in secular life, including such figures as Socrates, among other political and cultural examples.
Meaning
In its original meaning, the word martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible.[3] The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g., Josephus) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies.
During the early Christian centuries, the term acquired the extended meaning of believers who are called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endure suffering or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom.
The early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion.[4][5][6] The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr.[7]
The word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the following table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms.
1. | A hero | A person of some renown who is devoted to a cause believed to be admirable. |
2. | Opposition | People who oppose that cause. |
3. | Foreseeable risk | The hero foresees action by opponents to harm him or her, because of his or her commitment to the cause. |
4. | Courage and commitment | The hero continues, despite knowing the risk, out of commitment to the cause. |
5. | Death | The opponents kill the hero because of his or her commitment to the cause. |
6. | Audience response | The hero's death is commemorated. People may label the hero explicitly as a martyr. Other people may in turn be inspired to pursue the same cause. |
Martyrdom in the Middle East
In contemporary Middle Eastern cultures, the term for 'martyr’ (Arabic shahid) has more uses than the English word ‘martyr’.[9]
While the term can be narrowly used for a person who is killed because of their religion, it is more generally used to mean a person who died a violent death. Thus it can arguably mean a general ‘victim’.[10]
A person is a martyr if they were killed because of their identity, because of natural disasters like earthquakes,[11] or while performing relief or health care work. For example, İbrahim Bilgen was killed by Israel in the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid. Because he died as a humantiarian activist, he is called a martyr by Al-Jazeera.[12]
Martyrdom is also tied with nationalism, because a martyr can be a person who died in the context of national struggle.[13] For example, in Beirut, Martyrs' Square is a public square that's dedicated to Lebanese nationalists who were executed by the Ottomans.
In Palestine, the word ‘martyr’ is traditionally used to mean a person killed by Israeli forces, regardless of religion.[14][15] For example, Shireen Abu Akleh was a Palestinian Christian journalist who was killed by Israeli forces, and Arabic media calls her a ‘martyr’.[16] This reflects a communal belief that every Palestinian death is part of a resistance against Israeli occupation.[17] Children are likewise called martyrs, such as the late children of journalist Wael Al-Dahdouh who were killed in an Israeli airstrike.[18]
The label of martyrdom is used as a form of memoralizing the dead within some narrative, such as how the victims of the 2020 Beirut explosion were called ‘martyrs of corruption’ as a form of protest against the government.[19]
The wide usage of ‘martyr’ is not restricted to Arabic. Armenian culture likewise uses the term for the victims of the
Religious meanings
Eastern religions
Chinese culture
Martyrdom was extensively promoted by the
Hinduism
Despite the promotion of
Sikhism
Martyrdom (called shahadat in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept in Sikhism and represents an important institution of the faith. Sikhs believe in Ibaadat se Shahadat (from love to martyrdom). Some famous Sikh martyrs include:[23]
- Guru Arjan, the fifth leader of Sikhism. Guru ji was brutally tortured for almost 5 days before he attained shaheedi, or martyrdom.
- Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of Sikhism, martyred on 11 November 1675. He is also known as Dharam Di Chadar (i.e. "the shield of Religion"), suggesting that to save Hinduism, the guru gave his life.
- Bhai Dayala is one of the Sikhs who was martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 due to his refusal to accept Islam.
- Bhai Mati Das is considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save Hindu Brahmins.
- Bhai Sati Das is also considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred along with Guru Teg Bahadur at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save kashmiri pandits.
- Sahibzada Fateh Singh– the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh guru.
- Bhai Mani Singh, who came from a family of over 20 different martyrs
Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Martyrdom in
Christianity
In
The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention. Analyses of the Gospel
In the context of church history, from the time of the
In Christianity, death in
Even more modern day accounts of martyrdom for Christ exist, depicted in books such as Jesus Freaks, though the numbers are disputed. The claim that 100,000 Christians are killed for their faith annually is greatly exaggerated according to the BBC, with many of those deaths due to war,[38] but the fact of ongoing Christian martyrdoms remains undisputed.[39][40][41][42]
Islam
Shahid originates from the
The Islamic meaning of martyr is connected with the general Middle Eastern meaning of martyrdom.
Baháʼí Faith
In the
Notable people entitled as martyr
- 399 BCE – Socrates, a Greek philosopher who chose to die rather than renounce his ideals.
- c. 34 CE – Saint Stephen, considered to be the first Christian martyr.
- c. 2nd century CE – Ten Martyrs of Judaism.
- c. 288 – Saint Sebastian, the subject of many works of art.
- c. 304 – Saint Agnes of Rome, beheaded for refusing to forsake her devotion to Christ, for Roman paganism.
- c. 680 – Muhammed beheaded for opposing the Umayyad Caliphate.
- c. 692 – Abdullah ibn Zubair, martyred for opposing the Umayyad Caliphate.[46]
- 1415 – Jan Hus, Christian reformer burned at the stake for heresy.
- 1535 – Henry VIII as Supreme Head of the Church of England.
- 1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth leader of Sikhism.
- 1675 – Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of Sikhism, referred to as "Hind di Chadar" or "Shield of India" martyred in defense of religious freedom of Hindus.
- 1844 – Joseph Smith Jr., founder of Mormonism, killed by a mob in Carthage Jail, Illinois.
- 1859 – John Brown, radical abolitionist who fought to end slavery in the United States.
- 1941 – Maximilian Kolbe, a Roman Catholic priest who was martyred in the Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, August 1941.
- 1967 – Che Guevara, an influential Marxist–Leninist revolutionary in Cuba, the Congo, and Bolivia who was executed in Bolivia by counter-revolutionary forces. He has since become a figure of political protests and revolutions worldwide.
Political people entitled as martyr
A political martyr is someone who suffers persecution or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause.
Revolutionary martyr
The term "revolutionary martyr" usually relates to those dying in revolutionary struggle.[47][48] During the 20th century, the concept was developed in particular in the culture and propaganda of communist or socialist revolutions, although it was and is also used in relation to nationalist revolutions.
- In the culture of North Korea, martyrdom is a consistent theme in the ongoing revolutionary struggle, as depicted in literary works such as Sea of Blood. There is also a Revolutionary Martyrs' Cemetery in the country.
- In Vietnam, those who died in the independence struggle are often honoured as martyrs, or liệt sĩ in Vietnamese. Nguyễn Thái Học and schoolgirl Võ Thị Sáu are two examples.[49]
- In India, the term "revolutionary martyr" is often used when referring to the world history of socialist struggle. Guru Radha Kishan was a notable Indian independence activist and communist politician known to have used this phrasing.
- In Algeria, those who died in the Algerian war for independence are officially recognized as martyrs.[50]
See also
References
- ^ Gölz, Olmo "Martyrdom and the Struggle for Power. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Martyrdom in the Modern Middle East.", Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 2–13, 5.
- ^ Gölz, Olmo "The Imaginary Field of the Heroic: On the Contention between Heroes, Martyrs, Victims and Villains in Collective Memory." Archived 2020-01-03 at the Wayback Machine In helden.heroes.héros, Special Issue 5: Analyzing Processes of Heroization. Theories, Methods, Histories. Ed. by N Falkenhayner, S Meurer and T Schlechtriemen (2019): 27–38, 27.
- ISBN 978-0-521-60934-0.
- ^ Frances M. Young, The Use of Sacrificial Ideas in Greek Christian Writers from the New Testament to John Chrysostom (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004), pp. 107.
- ^ Eusebius wrote of the early Christians: "They were so eager to imitate Christ ... they gladly yielded the title of martyr to Christ, the true Martyr and Firstborn from the dead." Eusebius, Church History 5.1.2.
- ^ Scholars believe that Revelation was written during the period when the word for witness was gaining its meaning of martyr. Revelation describes several Christian reh with the term martyr (Rev 17:6, 12:11, 2:10–13), and describes Jesus in the same way ("Jesus Christ, the faithful witness/martyr" in Rev 1:5, and see also Rev 3:14).
- ^ a b A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 217–229.
- ^ From A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 218.
- ISBN 9781139248853.
- ^ Whitaker, Brian (October 12, 2000). "Martyrs, never victims". The Guardian.
- .
- ^ Keddie, Patrick (21 Jul 2016). "Remembering the Mavi Marmara victims". Al Jazeera.
- doi:10.1080/13530194.2014.918802.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "The Culture of Palestinian Shaheeds" (PDF). The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center. January 4, 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- ISBN 9781139248853.
- ^ Alamuddin, Baria (May 16, 2022). "Shireen Abu Akleh: A martyr to the truth of Israeli inhumanity". Arab News.
- ^ Raja Abdulrahim and Hiba Yazbek (December 31, 2022). "For Palestinians, a Rush to Claim 'Martyrs' Killed by Israel". The New York Times.
- ^ Abu Mazen, Saddam (October 28, 2023). "كتاب وأدباء عرب: صلابة وائل الدحدوح نموذج للجسارة الفلسطينية [Arab writers and writers: Wael Al-Dahdouh's toughness is a model of Palestinian courage]". Al Jazeera.
- ^ ICSR Team. "Martyrdom in Lebanon: An Evolution of Memory-Making". International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation.
- ^ "Holy Martyrs of the Armenian Genocide". The Armenian Church, Eastern Diocese of America. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
- ^ The Genocide Education Project. "President Biden formally recognizes the Armenian Genocide".
- ^ Stephen Knapp (2006) The Power of the Dharma: An Introduction to Hinduism and Vedic Culture [1]
- ^ Sandeep Singh Bajwa (2000-02-11). "Biographies of Great Sikh Martyrs". Sikh-history.com. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2014-08-22.
- ^ See Philippe Bobichon, « Martyre talmudique et martyre chrétien », Kentron : Revue du Monde Antique et de Psychologie Historique 11, 2 (1995) and 12, 1 (1996), pp. 109–129
- ^ See Davis, R."Martyr, or Witness?" Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine, New Matthew Bible Project
- ^ J. W. van Henten, "Jewish Martyrdom and Jesus' Death" in Jörg Frey & Jens Schröter (eds.), Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005) pp. 157–168.
- ^ Donald W. Riddle, "The Martyr Motif in the Gospel According to Mark." The Journal of Religion, IV.4 (1924), pp. 397–410.
- ^ M. E. Vines, M. E. Vines, "The 'Trial Scene' Chronotype in Mark and the Jewish Novel", in G. van Oyen and T. Shepherd (eds.), The Trial and Death of Jesus: Essays on the Passion Narrative in Mark (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), pp. 189–203.
- ^ Stephen Finlan, The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2004), pp. 193–210
- ^ Sam K. Williams, Death as Saving Event: The Background and Origin of a Concept (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for Harvard Theological Review, 1975), pp. 38–41.
- ^ David Seeley, The Noble Death (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), pp. 83–112.
- ^ Stanley Stowers, A Rereading of Romans: Justice, Jews, and Gentiles (Ann Arbor: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 212ff.
- ^ Jarvis J. Williams, Maccabean Martyr Traditions in Paul's Theology of Atonement (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2010)
- ^ S. A. Cummins, Paul and the Crucified Christ in Antioch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
- ^ Stephen J. Patterson, Beyond the Passion: Rethinking the Death and Life of Jesus (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2004).
- Arena, Saints, directed by Paul Tickell, 2006
- ^ "Forty Martyrs of England and Wales | Description, History, Canonization, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-13.
- ^ Alexander, Ruth (2013-11-12). "Are there really 100,000 new Christian martyrs every year?". BBC News. Retrieved 2014-08-22.
- ^ "IS 'beheads Christian hostages' in Nigeria". BBC News. 2019-12-27. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- ^ Chiaramonte, Perry (2016-04-21). "Martyr killed by bulldozer becomes symbol of growing persecution of Christians in China". Fox News. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- ^ "Christian evangelist murdered in southeast Turkey". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- ^ "Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam". ABC News. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
- Tehran University.
- ^ Gölz, "Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War.", Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 35–51, 35.
- ^ a b Winters, Jonah (1997-09-19). "Conclusion". Dying for God: Martyrdom in the Shi'i and Babi Religions. M.A. Thesis. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
- ^ "Biography of Hazrat Abdullah bin az-Zubayr (رضئ اللہ تعالی عنہ)". Aal-e-Qutub. 2018-06-03. Retrieved 2023-09-05.
- ^ The French Revolution Page 95 Linda Frey, Marsha Frey – 2004 "He was immortalized by the painter David in the famous painting of the death scene that became the icon of the revolution and an emblem of revolutionary propaganda. The revolutionary martyr was commemorated not only in painting and in ..."
- ^ Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican ... p. 250 John Mason Hart – 1987 "They popularized Ricardo Flores Magon as a revolutionary martyr who was harassed by the American and Mexican ..."
- ^ Vietnam At War Mark Philip Bradley – 2009 "As the concept of 'sacrifice' (hi sinh) came to embody the state's narrative of sacred war (chien tranh than thanh), the ultimate sacrifice was considered to be death in battle as a 'revolutionary martyr' (liet si)."
- ^ Staff, The New Arab (2021-10-04). "Algeria says 5.6 million died under French colonialism". www.newarab.com/. Retrieved 2023-08-18.
Bibliography
- "Martyrs", Catholic Encyclopedia
- Foster, Claude R. Jr. (1995). Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle: a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany: A Sourcebook on the German Church Struggle. Westchester, PA: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University. ISBN 978-1-887732-01-7
- History.com Editors. "Abolitionist John Brown Is Hanged". History.com, 4 Mar. 2010, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-brown-hanged.
Further reading
- Bélanger, Jocelyn J., et al. "The Psychology of Martyrdom: Making the Ultimate Sacrifice in the Name of a Cause." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 107.3 (2014): 494–515. Print.
- Kateb, George. "Morality and Self-Sacrifice, Martyrdom and Self-Denial." Social Research 75.2 (2008): 353–394. Print.
- Olivola, Christopher Y. and Eldar Shafir. "The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, no. 1 (2013): 91–105.
- PBS. "Plato and the Legacy of Socrates." PBS. https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/41a.html (accessed October 21, 2014).
- Reeve, C. D. C.. A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. Co., 2012.[ISBN missing]
External links
- Fox's Book of Martyrs – 16th century classic book, accounts of martyrdoms
- "Martyrdom from the perspective of sociology". Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion.