Mary, mother of Jesus

Mary

She has the highest position in Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including in a chapter named after her. ^[7][8][9]

The

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Mary's name in the original manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original

In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that the Holy Spirit impregnated her, thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesus miraculously, without sexual relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was born".^[18] The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis on whether Joseph and Mary produced siblings after the birth of Jesus or not.^[d] Among her many other names and titles are the

The title Theotokos, which means "God-bearer," was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431.^[25][26] The direct equivalents of title in Latin are Deipara and Dei Genitrix, although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin as Mater Dei ("Mother of God"), with similar patterns for other languages used in the Latin Church. However, this same phrase in Greek (Μήτηρ Θεοῦ), in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God".^[27][28][29]

Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she was the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his ancestral descent from King David.^{[30][31][32][33][34]} This is also based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother," the Gebirah or "Great Lady."^[35][36] Other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary.^[e]

In Islam

In

New Testament

The

• The Gospel of Luke mentions Mary the most often, identifying her by name twelve times, all of these in the infancy narrative (Luke 1:27–2:34).^[48]
• The Gospel of Matthew mentions her by name five times, four of these (1:16, 18, 20: 2:12)^[49] in the infancy narrative and only once (Matthew 13:55)^[50] outside the infancy narrative.
• The Gospel of Mark names her once (Mark 6:3)^[51] and mentions Jesus' mother without naming her in Mark 3:31–32.^[52]
• The
  wedding at Cana (John 2:1–12).^[53] The second reference has her standing near the cross of Jesus together with Mary Magdalene, Mary of Clopas (or Cleophas), and her own sister (possibly the same as Mary of Clopas; the wording is semantically ambiguous), along with the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 19:25–26).^[54] John 2:1–12^[53] is the only text in the canonical gospels in which the adult Jesus has a conversation with Mary. He does not address her as "Mother" but as "Woman". In Koine Greek (the language that the Gospel of John was composed in), calling one's mother "Woman" was not disrespectful, and could even be tender.^[55] Accordingly, some versions of the Bible translate it as "Dear woman".^[56]
• In the Acts of the Apostles, Mary and the brothers of Jesus are mentioned in the company of the eleven apostles who are gathered in the upper room after the Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:14).^[57]

In the Book of Revelation, also part of the New Testament, the "woman clothed with the sun" (Revelation 12:1, 12:5–6)^[58] is sometimes identified as Mary.

Genealogy

The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The Gospel of Matthew does give a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line, only identifying Mary as the wife of Joseph. John 19:25^[59] states that Mary had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary of Clopas, or if she is left unnamed. Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as the sister of Mary, mother of Jesus.^[60] According to the early 2nd century historian Hegesippus, Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother.^[61]

According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of

Mary resided in "her own house"

The angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded, "I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your word."^[69][f] Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites.^[70][71]

Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant,^[72] Mary hurried to see Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the words of praise that later became known as the Magnificat from her first word in the Latin version.^[73] After about three months, Mary returned to her own house.^[74]

Birth of Jesus

According to the

According to the gospel of Matthew, magi coming from Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living, and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream that King Herod wanted to murder the infant, and the family fled by night to Egypt and stayed there for some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee, rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's son Archelaus was the ruler of Judaea.^[88]

Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover celebration in Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious teachers.^{[89]: p.210 [90]}

Ministry of Jesus

Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his first miracle during a

The hagiography of Mary and the Holy Family can be contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, they sent in a message asking for him [...] And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'."^[96][97]

Mary is also depicted as being present in a group of women at the crucifixion standing near the disciple whom Jesus loved along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene,^[54] to which list Matthew 27:56^[98] adds "the mother of the sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40.^[99]

After the Ascension of Jesus

In Acts 1:12–26,

From this time, she disappears from the biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly woman in the Book of Revelation.^[101]

Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Orthodox tradition, tolerated also by Catholics, has her first dying a natural death, known as the Dormition of Mary,^[102] and then, soon after, her body itself also being assumed (taken bodily) into Heaven. Belief in the corporeal assumption of Mary is a dogma of the Catholic Church, in the Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches alike, and is believed as well by the Eastern Orthodox Church,^[103][104] the Oriental Orthodox Church, and parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican movement.^[105]

Later writings

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According to the

The earliest extant biographical writing on Mary is Life of the Virgin, attributed to the 7th-century saint Maximus the Confessor, which portrays her as a key element of the early Christian Church after the death of Jesus.^{[113][114][115]}

Religious perspectives

Christian

Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to Mariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutherans venerate the Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, painting icons or carving statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints.^{[22][24][117][118]}

Catholic

In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed" (beata, μακάρια) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There is a difference between the usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertaining to a

For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary and to the Immaculate Conception. In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.^[124][125]

Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of Mary and True Devotion to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to Jesus is through Mary".^[126] Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions (such as the Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary).^[127]

Major Marian devotions include:

Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary as "honored with the title 'Mother of God', to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs".^{[123][133][134][135][136]} Key Marian prayers include: Ave Maria, Alma Redemptoris Mater, Sub tuum praesidium, Ave maris stella, Regina caeli, Ave Regina caelorum and the Magnificat.^[137]

Mary's participation in the processes of

"It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man.'"[143]

There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows:

• Immaculate Conception: Mary was conceived without original sin.
• Mother of God
  : Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is the Theotokos (God-bearer), or Mother of God.
• Holy Spirit
  while remaining a virgin.
• Perpetual Virginity
  : Mary remained a virgin all her life, even after the act of giving birth to Jesus.
• Dormition: commemorates Mary's "falling asleep" or natural death shortly before her Assumption. Dormition is part of accepted Eastern Catholic theology, but not part of Roman Catholic doctrine.^[144]
• Assumption: Mary was taken bodily into heaven either at, or before, her death.

The acceptance of these Marian doctrines by Roman Catholics and other Christians can be summarized as follows:^{[16][145][146]}

The title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) for Mary was confirmed by the

The Virgin birth of Jesus was an almost universally held belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century.^[148] It is included in the two most widely used Christian creeds, which state that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (the Nicene Creed, in what is now its familiar form)^[149] and the Apostles' Creed. The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14,^[150] The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth.^[151] This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else.^[152]

The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has dogmatically defined the doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus. Whether Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is made in Munificentissimus Deus. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition, where they believe she died.

Catholics believe in the

The Perpetual Virginity of Mary asserts Mary's real and perpetual virginity even in the act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man. The term Ever-Virgin (Greek ἀειπάρθενος) is applied in this case, stating that Mary remained a virgin for the remainder of her life, making Jesus her biological and only son, whose conception and birth are held to be miraculous.^{[120][152][155]} The Orthodox Churches hold the position articulated in the Protoevangelium of James that Jesus' brothers and sisters were Joseph's children from a marriage prior to that of Mary, which had left him widowed. Roman Catholic teaching follows the Latin father Jerome in considering them Jesus' cousins.

Eastern Orthodox

The Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings", although not divine.

It was necessary that the body of the one who preserved her virginity intact in giving birth should also be kept incorrupt after death. It was necessary that she, who carried the Creator in her womb when he was a baby, should dwell among the tabernacles of heaven.[164]

From her we have harvested the grape of life; from her we have cultivated the seed of immortality. For our sake she became Mediatrix of all blessings; in her God became man, and man became God.^[165]

More recently, Sergei Bulgakov expressed the Orthodox sentiments towards Mary as follows:^[160]

Mary is not merely the instrument, but the direct positive condition of the Incarnation, its human aspect. Christ could not have been incarnate by some mechanical process, violating human nature. It was necessary for that nature itself to say for itself, by the mouth of the most pure human being: "Behold the handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to Thy word."

Protestant

Protestants in general reject the veneration and invocation of the Saints.^[16]: 1174 They share the belief that Mary is the mother of Jesus and "blessed among women" (Luke 1:42)^[166] but they generally do not agree that Mary is to be venerated. She is considered to be an outstanding example of a life dedicated to God.^[167] As such, they tend not to accept certain church doctrines such as her being preserved from sin.^[168] Theologian Karl Barth wrote that "the heresy of the Catholic Church is its Mariology".^[169]

Some early Protestants venerated Mary. Martin Luther wrote that: "Mary is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely without sin. God's grace fills her with everything good and makes her devoid of all evil."^[170] However, as of 1532, Luther stopped celebrating the feast of the Assumption of Mary and also discontinued his support of the Immaculate Conception.^[171] John Calvin remarked, "It cannot be denied that God in choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the highest honor."^[h] However, Calvin firmly rejected the notion that Mary can intercede between Christ and man.^[174]

Although Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli honored Mary as the Mother of Christ in the 16th century, they did so less than Martin Luther.^[175] Thus the idea of respect and high honor for Mary was not rejected by the first Protestants; however, they came to criticize the Roman Catholics for venerating Mary. Following the Council of Trent in the 16th century, as Marian veneration became associated with Catholics, Protestant interest in Mary decreased. During the Age of the Enlightenment, any residual interest in Mary within Protestant churches almost disappeared, although Anglicans and Lutherans continued to honor her.^[16]

In the 20th century, some Protestants reacted in opposition to the Catholic dogma of the

Anglican

The various churches that form the

The Anglican Society of Mary was formed in 1931 and maintains chapters in many countries. The purpose of the society is to foster devotion to Mary among Anglicans.^[118][180] High church Anglicans espouse doctrines that are closer to Roman Catholics, and retain veneration for Mary, such as Anglican pilgrimages to Our Lady of Lourdes, which have taken place since 1963, and pilgrimages to Our Lady of Walsingham, which have taken place for hundreds of years.^[181]

Historically, there has been enough common ground between Roman Catholics and Anglicans on Marian issues that in 2005, a joint statement called Mary: grace and hope in Christ was produced through ecumenical meetings of Anglicans and Roman Catholic theologians. This document, informally known as the "Seattle Statement", is not formally endorsed by either the Catholic Church or the Anglican Communion, but is viewed by its authors as the beginning of a joint understanding of Mary.^[118][182]

Lutheran

Despite Martin Luther's harsh polemics against his Roman Catholic opponents over issues concerning Mary and the saints, theologians appear to agree that Luther adhered to the Marian decrees of the ecumenical councils and dogmas of the church. He held fast to the belief that Mary was a perpetual virgin and Mother of God.^[183][184] Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, some 300 years before the dogmatization of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, was a firm adherent of that view^{[citation needed]}. Others maintain that Luther in later years changed his position on the Immaculate Conception, which, at that time was undefined in the church, maintaining however the sinlessness of Mary throughout her life.^[185][186] For Luther, early in his life, the Assumption of Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was the belief that Mary and the saints do live on after death.^{[187][188][189]} "Throughout his career as a priest-professor-reformer, Luther preached, taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and piety."^[190]

Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the "Papists" for blurring the line between high admiration of the grace of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious service given to another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebrating saints' days and making intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and other departed saints to be idolatry.^[191][192] His final thoughts on Marian devotion and veneration are preserved in a sermon preached at Wittenberg only a month before his death:

Therefore, when we preach faith, that we should worship nothing but God alone, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, as we say in the Creed: 'I believe in God the Father almighty and in Jesus Christ,' then we are remaining in the temple at Jerusalem. Again,'This is my beloved Son; listen to him.' 'You will find him in a manger'. He alone does it. But reason says the opposite: What, us? Are we to worship only Christ? Indeed, shouldn't we also honor the holy mother of Christ? She is the woman who bruised the head of the serpent. Hear us, Mary, for thy Son so honors thee that he can refuse thee nothing. Here Bernard went too far in his Homilies on the Gospel: Missus est Angelus.^[193] God has commanded that we should honor the parents; therefore I will call upon Mary. She will intercede for me with the Son, and the Son with the Father, who will listen to the Son. So you have the picture of God as angry and Christ as judge; Mary shows to Christ her breast and Christ shows his wounds to the wrathful Father. That's the kind of thing this comely bride, the wisdom of reason cooks up: Mary is the mother of Christ, surely Christ will listen to her; Christ is a stern judge, therefore I will call upon St. George and St. Christopher. No, we have been by God's command baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, just as the Jews were circumcised.^[194][195]

Certain Lutheran churches such as the

Methodists do not have any additional teachings on the Virgin Mary except from what is mentioned in Scripture and the ecumenical Creeds. As such, Methodists generally accept the doctrine of the virgin birth, but reject the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.^[197] John Wesley, the principal founder of the Methodist movement within the Church of England, believed that Mary "continued a pure and unspotted virgin", thus upholding the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.^[198][199] Contemporary Methodism does hold that Mary was a virgin before, during, and immediately after the birth of Christ.^[200][201] In addition, some Methodists also hold the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary as a pious opinion.^[202]

Nontrinitarian

In nontrinitarian groups that are also Christian mortalists, Mary is not seen as an intercessor between humankind and Jesus, whom mortalists would consider "asleep", awaiting resurrection.^[208]

Jewish

The issue of the parentage of

The Virgin Mary holds a singularly exalted place in Islam, and she is considered by the Quran to have been the greatest woman in the history of humankind. The Islamic scripture recounts the Divine Promise given to Mary as being: ""O Mary! Surely Allah has selected you, purified you, and chosen you over all women of the world" (3:42).

Mary is often referred to by Muslims by the honorific title Sayedetina ("Our Lady"). She is mentioned in the Quran as the daughter of Imran.^[217]

Moreover, Mary is the only woman named in the Quran and she is mentioned or referred to in the scripture a total of 50 times.

Mary was declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a "Sign of God" to humanity;

Mary is also called a "Chosen One";[221] a "Purified One";^[221] a "Truthful one";^[222] her child conceived through "a Word from God";^[223] and "chosen you above the women of the worlds(the material and heavenly worlds)".^[221]

The Quran relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam (Mary) in two places, 3:35-47 and 19:16-34. These state beliefs in both the Immaculate Conception of Mary and the virgin birth of Jesus.^{[224][225][226]} The account given in Surah Maryam 19 is nearly identical with that in the Gospel according to Luke, and both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and "Good News of the birth of Yahya (John)", followed by the account of the annunciation. It mentions how Mary was informed by an angel that she would become the mother of Jesus through the actions of God alone.^[227]

In the Islamic tradition, Mary and Jesus were the only children who could not be touched by Satan at the moment of their birth, for God imposed a veil between them and Satan.^[228][229] According to the author Shabbir Akhtar, the Islamic perspective on Mary's Immaculate Conception is compatible with the Catholic doctrine of the same topic.

"O People of the Book! Do not go to extremes regarding your faith; say nothing about Allah except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was no more than a messenger of Allah and the fulfilment of His Word through Mary and a spirit ˹created by a command˺ from Him. So believe in Allah and His messengers and do not say, "Trinity." Stop!—for your own good. Allah is only One God. Glory be to Him! He is far above having a son! To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. And Allah is sufficient as a Trustee of Affairs.

— Surah An-Nisa 4:171^[230][231]

The Quran says that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Suras 3 and 19 of the Quran, where it is written that God sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin.^[232]

Bahá'í Faith

The

Other biblical verses have also been debated; for example, the reference made by Paul the Apostle that Jesus was made "of the seed of David according to the flesh" (Romans 1:3)[244] meaning that he was a descendant of David through Joseph.^[245]

Pre-Christian Rome

From the early stages of Christianity, belief in the virginity of Mary and the virgin conception of Jesus, as stated in the gospels, holy and supernatural, was used by detractors, both political and religious, as a topic for discussions, debates, and writings, specifically aimed to challenge the divinity of Jesus and thus Christians and Christianity alike.

History

2nd century

Justin Martyr was among the first to draw a parallel between Eve and Mary. This derives from his comparison of Adam and Jesus. In his Dialogue with Trypho, written sometime between 155 and 167,^[250] he explains:

He became man by the Virgin, in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin. For Eve, who was a virgin and undefiled, having conceived the word of the serpent, brought forth disobedience and death. But the Virgin Mary received faith and joy, when the angel Gabriel announced the good tidings to her that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon her, and the power of the Highest would overshadow her: wherefore also the Holy Thing begotten of her is the Son of God; and she replied, 'Be it unto me according to thy word." And by her has He been born, to whom we have proved so many scriptures refer, and by whom God destroys both the serpent and those angels and men who are like him; but works deliverance from death to those who repent of their wickedness and believe upon Him.^[251]

It is possible that the teaching of Mary as the

In accordance with this design, Mary the Virgin is found obedient, saying, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to your word." Luke 1:38 But Eve was disobedient; for she did not obey when as yet she was a virgin. ... having become disobedient, was made the cause of death, both to herself and to the entire human race; so also did Mary, having a man betrothed [to her], and being nevertheless a virgin, by yielding obedience, become the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race. And on this account does the law term a woman betrothed to a man, the wife of him who had betrothed her, although she was as yet a virgin; thus indicating the back-reference from Mary to Eve,...For the Lord, having been born "the First-begotten of the dead," Revelation 1:5 and receiving into His bosom the ancient fathers, has regenerated them into the life of God, He having been made Himself the beginning of those that live, as Adam became the beginning of those who die. 1 Corinthians 15:20–22 Wherefore also Luke, commencing the genealogy with the Lord, carried it back to Adam, indicating that it was He who regenerated them into the Gospel of life, and not they Him. And thus also it was that the knot of Eve's disobedience was loosed by the obedience of Mary. For what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith.[254]

During the second century, the Gospel of James was also written. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker, "its interest in Mary as a figure in her own right and its reverence for her sacred purity mark the beginnings of Marian piety within early Christianity".^[255]

3rd to 5th centuries

During the Age of Martyrs and at the latest in the fourth century, the majority of the most essential ideas of Marian devotion already appeared in some form – in the writings of the Church Fathers, apocrypha and visual arts. The lack of sources makes it unclear whether the devotion to Mary played a role in liturgical use during the very first centuries of Christianity.^[256] In the 4th century, Marian devotion in a liturgical context becomes evident.^[257]

The earliest known Marian prayer (the

The Council of Ephesus was long thought to have been held at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a hundred years before.[267]^[268][269] Though, recent archeological surveys indicate that St. Mary's Church in Ephesus did not exist at the time of the Council or, at least, the building was not dedicated to Mary before 500.^[270] The Church of the Seat of Mary in Judea was built shortly after the introduction of Marian liturgy at the council of Ephesus, in 456, by a widow named Ikelia.^[271]

According to the 4th-century heresiologist

Roman Catholic Church and was preached against by Epiphanius of Salamis, who wrote about the group in his writings titled Panarion.^[272]

Byzantium

During the era of the Byzantine Empire, Mary was venerated as the virginal Mother of God and as an intercessor.[273]

Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was previously a centre for worship of Artemis, a virgin goddess; the Temple of Artemis there is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The cult of Mary was furthered by Queen Theodora in the 6th century.^[274][275] According to William E. Phipps, in the book Survivals of Roman Religion,^[276] "Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both virgin and mother at the grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of Mary."^[277]

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages saw many legends about Mary, her parents, and even her grandparents.^[278] Mary's popularity increased dramatically from the 12th century,^[279] linked to the Roman Catholic Church’s designation of Mary as Mediatrix.^[280][281]

Post-Reformation

Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance, while Protestants show scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the Orthodox venerate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered "more honorable than the

Seraphim".^[24]

Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: "Love and veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the soul of Orthodox piety. A faith in Christ which does not include his mother is another faith, another Christianity from that of the Orthodox church."^[160]

Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do they worship her. Roman Catholics view Mary as subordinate to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is seen as above all other creatures.^[282] Similarly, Theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote that the Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings" and "ceaselessly pray for her intercession". However, she is not considered a "substitute for the One Mediator" who is Christ.^[160] "Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord", he wrote.^[283] Similarly, Catholics do not worship Mary as a divine being, but rather "hyper-venerate" her. In Roman Catholic theology, the term hyperdulia is reserved for Marian veneration, latria for the worship of God, and dulia for the veneration of other saints and angels.^[284] The definition of the three level hierarchy of latria, hyperdulia and dulia goes back to the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.^[285]

Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of

Madonna and Child.^[286] The icon of the Virgin Theotokos with Christ is, without doubt, the most venerated icon in the Orthodox Church.^[287] Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians venerate images and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their veneration with the understanding that those who venerate the image are venerating the reality of the person it represents,^[288] and the 842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same.^[289] According to Orthodox piety and traditional practice, however, believers ought to pray before and venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional statues.^[290]

The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a book he wrote about praying with the icons of Mary, Rowan Williams, former archbishop of Canterbury, said: "It is not only that we cannot understand Mary without seeing her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ without seeing his attention to Mary."^[118][291]

On 4 September 1781, 11 families of

Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, better known as "La Placita".^{[citation needed}

]

Feasts

Main article: Marian feast days

The earliest feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle of feasts that celebrated the

Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Mary was purified according to Jewish customs. The Feast of the Purification began to be celebrated by the 5th century, and became the "Feast of Simeon" in Byzantium.^[293]

Feast of the Assumption in Għaxaq

, Malta

In the 7th and 8th centuries, four more Marian feasts were established in Eastern Christianity. In the West, a feast dedicated to Mary, just before Christmas was celebrated in the Churches of Milan and Ravenna in Italy in the 7th century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification, Annunciation, Assumption and Nativity of Mary were gradually and sporadically introduced into England by the 11th century.^[293]

Over time, the number and nature of feasts (and the associated

Battle of Lepanto.^[294][295]

Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal issues—the

Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate this, or any other Marian feasts.^[22]

Relics

The veneration of marian

relics used to be common practice before the Reformation

. It was later largely surpassed by the veneration of marian images.

Bodily relics

As Mary's body is believed by most Christians to have been taken up into the glory of heaven, her bodily relics have been limited to hair, nails and breast milk.

According to John Calvin's 1543 Treatise on Relics, her hair was exposed for veneration in several churches, including in Rome, Saint-Flour, Cluny and Nevers.^[297]

In this book, Calvin criticized the veneration of the Holy Milk due to the lack of biblical references to it and the doubts about the veracity of such relics:

With regard to the milk, there is not perhaps a town, a convent, or nunnery, where it is not shown in large or small quantities. Indeed, had the Virgin been a wet-nurse her whole life, or a dairy, she could not have produced more than is shown as hers in various parts. How they obtained all this milk they do not say, and it is superfluous here to remark that there is no foundation in the Gospels for these foolish and blasphemous extravagances.

Although the veneration of Marian bodily relics is no longer a common practice today, there are some remaining traces of it, such as the Chapel of the Milk Grotto in Bethlehem, named after Mary's milk.

Clothes

Clothes which are believed to have belonged to Mary include the

Vatopedi monastery and her Holy Girdle kept in Mount Athos

.

Other relics are said to have been collected during later

Byzantine Catholic Churches as the Intercession of the Theotokos

.

Few other objects are said to have been touched or given by Mary during

apparitions, notably a 1531 image printed on a tilma, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, belonging to Juan Diego

.

Places

House of Mary

in Ephesus

Places where Mary is believed to have lived include the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto, Marche, and the House of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus.

Eastern Christians believe that she died and was put in the Tomb of the Virgin Mary near Jerusalem before the Assumption

.

The belief that Mary's house was in

Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their histories that John later went to Ephesus, which may provide the basis for the early belief that Mary also lived in Ephesus with John.^[306][307]

The apparition of Our Lady of the Pillar in the first century was believed to be a bilocation, as it occurred in Spain while Mary was living in Ephesus or Jerusalem. The pillar on which she was standing during the apparition is believed to be kept in the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza and is therefore venerated as a relics, as it was in physical contact with Mary.

In arts

Iconography

See also: Madonna (art) and Marian art in the Catholic Church

In paintings, Mary is traditionally portrayed in blue. This tradition can trace its origin to the Byzantine Empire, from c. 500 AD, where blue was "the colour of an empress". A more practical explanation for the use of this colour is that in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, the blue pigment was derived from the rock lapis lazuli, a stone of greater value than gold, which was imported from Afghanistan. Beyond a painter's retainer, patrons were expected to purchase any gold or lapis lazuli to be used in the painting. Hence, it was an expression of devotion and glorification to swathe the Virgin in gowns of blue. Transformations in visual depictions of Mary from the 13th to 15th centuries mirror her "social" standing within the Church and in society.^[308]

Traditional representations of Mary include the crucifixion scene, called Stabat Mater.^[309][310] While not recorded in the Gospel accounts, Mary cradling the dead body of her son is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "pity".

For a larger gallery, see Commons:Madonna structured gallery.

• 
  Mary nursing the

  Infant Jesus. Early image from the Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome

  , c. 2nd century
• 
  Trojeručica, a Byzantine representation of the Theotokos, (c. 8th century), in Hilandar. Serbia
• 
  Our Lady of Vladimir, a Byzantine representation of the Theotokos
• 
  Theotokos Panachranta, from the 11th century

  Gertrude Psalter
• 
  Flight into Egypt by Giotto c. 1304
• 
  Lamentation by Pietro Lorenzetti, Assisi Basilica, c. 1310–1329
• 
  Black Madonna and Child, Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, Axum, Ethiopia
• 
  Chinese Madonna, St. Francis' Church, Macao
• 
  Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–99) in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City
• 
  St Vaast Altarpiece by Jacques Daret

  , 1434–1435
• 
  Virgin of Guadalupe, from the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico City, 16th century
• 
  Our Lady of La Naval de Manila statue in Quezon City, Philippines, c. 1593
• 
  Madonna on Floral Wreath by Peter Paul Rubens with Jan Brueghel the Elder, c. 1619
• 
  Rubens

  , 1634
• 
  Virgin of Montserrat from Puerto Rico, c. 1775–1825
• 
  Virgin and Child, French (15th century)
• 
  Mary and Jesus, outside the Jongno Catholic Church in Seoul, South Korea.
• 
  Statue of Mary and Jesus at Gwanghwamun, pictured at the time of Pope Francis' visit to South Korea, 2014.
• 
  Mary outside St. Nikolai Catholic Church in Ystad 2021
• 
  A kneeling Virgin Mary pictured in the former coat of arms of Maaria

Cinematic portrayals

Mary has been portrayed in various films and on television, including:

• The Miracle (1912) color silent film of the 1911 play The Miracle, a statue of Mary, played by Maria Carmi, comes to life
• Das Mirakel (1912) silent film; a German version of the 1911 play The Miracle
• The Song of Bernadette (1943 film), played by Linda Darnell.
• The Living Christ Series (1951 non-theatrical, non-television film twelve-part series), played by Eileen Rowe.
• The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima (1952 film), played by Virginia Gibson.
• Ben-Hur (1959 film), played by José Greci.^[311]
• Das Mirakel
  )
• King of Kings (1961 film), played by Siobhán McKenna.^[312]
• The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965 film), played by Dorothy McGuire.^[313]
• Jesus of Nazareth (1977 two-part television miniseries), played by Olivia Hussey.^[314]
• The Last Temptation of Christ (1988 film), played by Verna Bloom.^[315]
• Mary, Mother of Jesus (1999 television film), played by Pernilla August.^[316]
• Shabnam Gholikhani.^[317]
• The Passion of the Christ (2004 film), played by Maia Morgenstern.^[318]
• Imperium: Saint Peter (2005 television film), played by Lina Sastri.
• Color of the Cross (2006 film), played by Debbi Morgan.^[319]
• The Nativity Story (2006 film), played by Keisha Castle-Hughes.^[320]
• The Passion (2008 television miniseries), played by Paloma Baeza.^[321][322]
• The Nativity (2010 four-part miniseries), played by Tatiana Maslany
  .
• Mary of Nazareth (2012 film), played by Alissa Jung.
• Son of God (2014 film), played by Roma Downey.^[323]
• Mary Magdalene (2018 film), played by Irit Sheleg.^[324]
• Jesus: His Life (2019 TV series), played by Houda Echouafni.^[325]
• Fatima (2020 film), played by Joana Ribeiro.

Music

• Claudio Monteverdi: Vespro della Beata Vergine (1610)
• Johann Sebastian Bach: Magnificat (1723, rev. 1733)
• Franz Schubert: Ave Maria (1835)
• Charles Gounod: Ave Maria (1859)
• John Tavener: Mother and Child, setting a poem by Brian Keeble for choir, organ and temple gong (2002)

See also