Mary Anning
Mary Anning | |
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palaeontologist | |
Known for | Fossil hunting |
Mary Anning (21 May 1799 – 9 March 1847) was an English
Anning searched for fossils in the area's
Anning struggled financially for much of her life. As a woman, she was not eligible to join the Geological Society of London and she did not always receive full credit for her scientific contributions. However, her friend, geologist Henry De la Beche, who painted Duria Antiquior, the first widely circulated pictorial representation of a scene from prehistoric life derived from fossil reconstructions, based it largely on fossils Anning had found and sold prints of it for her benefit.
Anning became well known in geological circles in Britain, Europe, and America, and was consulted on issues of anatomy as well as fossil collecting. The only scientific writing of hers published in her lifetime appeared in the Magazine of Natural History in 1839, an extract from a letter that Anning had written to the magazine's editor questioning one of its claims. After her death in 1847, Anning's unusual life story attracted increasing interest.
Life and career
Early childhood
Mary Anning
Molly and Richard had ten children.[6] The first child, also Mary, was born in 1794. She was followed by another daughter, who died almost at once; Joseph in 1796; and another son in 1798, who died in infancy. In December that year, the oldest child, (the first Mary) then four years old, died after her clothes caught fire, possibly while adding wood shavings to the fire.[5] The incident was reported in the Bath Chronicle on 27 December 1798: "A child, four years of age of Mr. R. Anning, a cabinetmaker of Lyme, was left by the mother for about five minutes ... in a room where there were some shavings ... The girl's clothes caught fire and she was so dreadfully burnt as to cause her death."[7]
When Anning was born five months later, she was thus named Mary after her dead sister. More children were born after her, but none of them survived more than a year or two. Only the second Mary Anning and her brother Joseph, who was three years older than her, survived to adulthood.[5] The high childhood mortality rate for the Anning family was not unusual. Almost half the children born in the UK in the 19th century died before the age of five, and in the crowded living conditions of early 19th-century Lyme Regis, infant deaths from diseases like smallpox and measles were common.[6]
On 19 August 1800, when Anning was 15 months old, an event occurred that became part of local lore. She was being held by a neighbour, Elizabeth Haskings, who was standing with two other women under an elm tree watching an equestrian show being put on by a travelling company of horsemen when lightning struck the tree – killing all three women below.[8] Onlookers rushed the infant home where she was revived in a bath of hot water.[7] A local doctor declared her survival miraculous. Anning's family said she had been a sickly baby before the event but afterwards she seemed to blossom. For years afterwards members of her community would attribute the child's curiosity, intelligence and lively personality to the incident.[9]
Anning's education was extremely limited, but she was able to attend a Congregationalist Sunday school, where she learned to read and write. Congregationalist doctrine, unlike that of the Church of England at the time, emphasised the importance of education for the poor. Her prized possession was a bound volume of the Dissenters' Theological Magazine and Review, in which the family's pastor, the Reverend James Wheaton, had published two essays, one insisting that God had created the world in six days, the other urging dissenters to study the new science of geology.[10]
Fossils as a family business
By the late 18th century,
Their father, Richard, often took Anning and her brother Joseph on fossil-hunting expeditions to supplement the family's income. They offered their discoveries for sale to tourists on a table outside their home. This was a difficult time for England's poor; the French Revolutionary Wars, and the Napoleonic Wars that followed, caused food shortages. The price of wheat almost tripled between 1792 and 1812, but wages for the working class remained almost unchanged. In Dorset, the rising price of bread caused political unrest, even riots. At one point, Richard Anning was involved in organising a protest against food shortages.[15]
In addition, the family's status as religious dissenters—not followers of the Church of England—attracted disabilities. In the earlier nineteenth century, those who refused to subscribe to the Articles of the Church of England were still not allowed to study at Oxford or Cambridge or to take certain positions in the army, and were excluded by law from several professions.[5] Her father had been suffering from tuberculosis and injuries he suffered from a fall off a cliff. When he died in November 1810 (aged 44), he left the family with debts and no savings, forcing them to apply for poor relief.[16]
The family continued collecting and selling fossils together and set up a table of curiosities near the coach stop at a local inn. Although the stories about Anning tend to focus on her successes, Dennis Dean writes that her mother and brother were astute collectors too, and Anning's parents had sold fossils before the father's death.[17]
Their first well-known find was in 1811 when Mary Anning was 12; her brother Joseph dug up a 4-foot
Anning's mother Molly initially ran the fossil business after her husband Richard's death, but it is unclear how much actual fossil collecting Molly did herself. As late as 1821, Molly wrote to the
Birch auction
The family's keenest customer was Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch, later Bosvile, a wealthy collector from Lincolnshire, who bought several specimens from them. In 1820 Birch became disturbed by the family's poverty. Having made no major discoveries for a year, they were at the point of having to sell their furniture to pay the rent. So he decided to auction on their behalf the fossils he had purchased from them. He wrote to the palaeontologist Gideon Mantell on 5 March that year to say that the sale was "for the benefit of the poor woman and her son and daughter at Lyme, who have in truth found almost all the fine things which have been submitted to scientific investigation ... I may never again possess what I am about to part with, yet in doing it I shall have the satisfaction of knowing that the money will be well applied." The auction was held at Bullocks in London on 15 May 1820, and raised £400 (the equivalent of £34,000 in 2024)[22]. How much of that was given to the Annings is not known, but it seems to have placed the family on a steadier financial footing, and with buyers arriving from Paris and Vienna, the three-day event raised the family's profile within the geological community.[17]
Fossil shop and growing expertise in a risky occupation
Anning continued to support herself selling fossils. Her primary stock in trade consisted of invertebrate fossils such as
This persevering female has for years gone daily in search of fossil remains of importance at every tide, for many miles under the hanging cliffs at Lyme, whose fallen masses are her immediate object, as they alone contain these valuable relics of a former world, which must be snatched at the moment of their fall, at the continual risk of being crushed by the half suspended fragments they leave behind, or be left to be destroyed by the returning tide: – to her exertions we owe nearly all the fine specimens of Ichthyosauri of the great collections ...[21]
The risks of Anning's profession were illustrated when in October 1833 she barely avoided being killed by a landslide that buried her black-and-white terrier, Tray, her constant companion when she went collecting.[14] Anning wrote to a friend, Charlotte Murchison, in November of that year: "Perhaps you will laugh when I say that the death of my old faithful dog has quite upset me, the cliff that fell upon him and killed him in a moment before my eyes, and close to my feet ... it was but a moment between me and the same fate."[23]
As Anning continued to make important finds, her reputation grew. On 10 December 1823, she found the first complete Plesiosaurus, and in 1828 the first British example of the flying reptiles known as pterosaurs, called a flying dragon when it was displayed at the British Museum, followed by a Squaloraja fish skeleton in 1829.[24] Despite her limited education, she read as much of the scientific literature as she could obtain, and often, laboriously hand-copied papers borrowed from others. Palaeontologist Christopher McGowan examined a copy Anning made of an 1824 paper by William Conybeare on marine reptile fossils and noted that the copy included several pages of her detailed technical illustrations that he was hard-pressed to tell apart from the original.[14] She also dissected modern animals including both fish and cuttlefish to gain a better understanding of the anatomy of some of the fossils with which she was working. Lady Harriet Silvester, the widow of the former Recorder of the City of London, visited Lyme in 1824 and described Anning in her diary:
The extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong. She fixes the bones on a frame with cement and then makes drawings and has them engraved... It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour—that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom.[25]
In 1826, at the age of 27, Anning managed to save enough money to purchase a home with a glass store-front window for her shop, Anning's Fossil Depot. The business had become important enough that the move was covered in the local paper, which noted that the shop had a fine ichthyosaur skeleton on display. Many geologists and fossil collectors from Europe and America visited her at Lyme, including the geologist George William Featherstonhaugh, who called Anning a "very clever funny Creature."[26] He purchased fossils from Anning for the newly opened New York Lyceum of Natural History in 1827. King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony visited her shop in 1844 and purchased an ichthyosaur skeleton for his extensive natural history collection.[27] The king's physician and aide, Carl Gustav Carus, wrote in his journal:
We had alighted from the carriage and were proceeding on foot, when we fell in with a shop in which the most remarkable petrifications and fossil remains—the head of an Ichthyosaurus—beautiful ammonites, etc. were exhibited in the window. We entered and found the small shop and adjoining chamber completely filled with fossil productions of the coast ... I found in the shop a large slab of blackish clay, in which a perfect Ichthyosaurus of at least six feet, was embedded. This specimen would have been a great acquisition for many of the cabinets of natural history on the Continent, and I consider the price demanded, £15 sterling, as very moderate.[28]
Carus asked Anning to write her name and address in his pocketbook for future reference—she wrote it as "Mary Annins"—and when she handed it back to him she told him: "I am well known throughout the whole of Europe".[28] As time passed, Anning's confidence in her knowledge grew, and in 1839 she wrote to the Magazine of Natural History to question the claim made in an article, that a recently discovered fossil of the prehistoric shark Hybodus represented a new genus, as an error since she had discovered the existence of fossil sharks with both straight and hooked teeth many years ago.[29][30] The extract from the letter that the magazine printed was the only writing of Anning's published in the scientific literature during her lifetime. Some personal letters written by Anning, such as her correspondence with Frances Augusta Bell, were published while she was alive, however.[21][31]
Interactions with the scientific community
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As a woman, Anning was treated as an outsider to the scientific community. At the time in Britain, women were not allowed to vote, hold public office, or attend university. The newly formed, but increasingly influential Geological Society of London did not allow women to become members, or even to attend meetings as guests.[32] The only occupations generally open to working-class women were farm labour, domestic service, and work in the newly opened factories.[14]
Although Anning knew more about fossils and geology than many of the wealthy fossilists to whom she sold, it was always the gentlemen geologists who published the scientific descriptions of the specimens she found, often neglecting to mention Anning's name. She became resentful of this.[14] Anna Pinney, a young woman who sometimes accompanied Anning while she collected, wrote: "She says the world has used her ill ... these men of learning have sucked her brains, and made a great deal of publishing works, of which she furnished the contents, while she derived none of the advantages."[33] Anning herself wrote in a letter: "The world has used me so unkindly, I fear it has made me suspicious of everyone".[34] Torrens writes that these slights to Anning were part of a larger pattern of ignoring the contributions of working-class people in early 19th-century scientific literature. Often a fossil would be found by a quarryman, construction worker, or road worker who would sell it to a wealthy collector, and it was the latter who was credited if the find was of scientific interest.[21]
Along with purchasing specimens, many geologists visited Anning to collect fossils or discuss anatomy and classification.
Anning also assisted Thomas Hawkins with his efforts to collect ichthyosaur fossils at Lyme in the 1830s. She was aware of his penchant to "enhance" the fossils he collected. Anning wrote: "he is such an enthusiast that he makes things as he imagines they ought to be; and not as they are really found...".[40] A few years later there was a public scandal when it was discovered that Hawkins had inserted fake bones to make some ichthyosaur skeletons seem more complete, and later sold them to the government for the British Museum's collection without the appraisers knowing about the additions.[41]
The Swiss palaeontologist Louis Agassiz visited Lyme Regis in 1834 and worked with Anning to obtain and study fish fossils found in the region. He was so impressed by Anning and her friend Elizabeth Philpot that he wrote in his journal: "Miss Philpot and Mary Anning have been able to show me with utter certainty which are the ichthyodorulite's dorsal fins of sharks that correspond to different types." He thanked both of them for their help in his book, Studies of Fossil Fish.[42]
Another leading British geologist, Roderick Murchison, did some of his first fieldwork in southwest England, including Lyme, accompanied by his wife, Charlotte. Murchison wrote that they decided Charlotte should stay behind in Lyme for a few weeks to "become a good practical fossilist, by working with the celebrated Mary Anning of that place...". Charlotte and Anning became lifelong friends and correspondents. Charlotte, who travelled widely and met many prominent geologists through her work with her husband, helped Anning build her network of customers throughout Europe, and she stayed with the Murchisons when she visited London in 1829. Anning's correspondents included Charles Lyell, who wrote to ask her opinion on how the sea was affecting the coastal cliffs around Lyme, as well as Adam Sedgwick—one of her earliest customers—who taught geology at the University of Cambridge and who numbered Charles Darwin among his students. Gideon Mantell, discoverer of the dinosaur Iguanodon, also visited Anning at her shop.[43]
Financial difficulties and change in church affiliation
By 1830, because of difficult economic conditions in Britain that reduced the demand for fossils, coupled with long gaps between major finds, Anning was having financial problems again. Her friend, the geologist Henry De la Beche, assisted her by commissioning Georg Scharf to make a lithographic print based on De la Beche's watercolour painting, Duria Antiquior, portraying life in prehistoric Dorset that was based largely on fossils Anning had found. De la Beche sold copies of the print to his fellow geologists and other wealthy friends and donated the proceeds to Anning. It became the first such scene from what later became known as deep time to be widely circulated.[44][45] In December 1830, Anning finally made another major find, a skeleton of a new type of plesiosaur, which sold for £200.[46]
It was around this time that Anning switched from attending the local Congregational church, where she had been baptised and in which she and her family had always been active members, to the Anglican church. The change was prompted in part by a decline in Congregational attendance that began in 1828 when its popular pastor, John Gleed, a fellow fossil collector, left for the United States to campaign against slavery. He was replaced by the less likeable Ebenezer Smith. The greater social respectability of the established church, in which some of Anning's gentleman geologist customers such as Buckland, Conybeare, and Sedgwick were ordained clergy, was also a factor. Anning, who was
Anning suffered another serious financial setback in 1835 when she lost most of her life savings, about £300, in a bad investment. Sources differ somewhat on what exactly went wrong.
Illness and death
Anning died from
After Anning's death, Henry De la Beche, president of the Geological Society, wrote a eulogy that he read to a meeting of the society and published in its quarterly transactions, the first such eulogy given for a woman. These were honours normally only accorded to fellows of the society, which did not admit women until 1904. The eulogy began:
I cannot close this notice of our losses by death without adverting to that of one, who though not placed among even the easier classes of society, but one who had to earn her daily bread by her labour, yet contributed by her talents and untiring researches in no small degree to our knowledge of the great Enalio-Saurians, and other forms of organic life entombed in the vicinity of Lyme Regis ...[51]
An anonymous article about Anning's life was published in February 1865 in
Major discoveries
Ichthyosaurs
Anning's first famous discovery was made shortly after her father's death when she was still a child of about 12. In 1811 (some sources say 1810 or 1809) her brother Joseph found a 4 ft (1.2 m) skull, but failed to locate the rest of the animal.[21] After Joseph told Anning to look between the cliffs at Lyme Regis and Charmouth, she found the skeleton—17 ft (5.2 m) long in all—a few months later. The family hired workmen to dig it out in November that year, an event covered by the local press on 9 November, who identified the fossil as a crocodile.[20]
Other
Anning found several other ichthyosaur fossils between 1815 and 1819, including almost complete skeletons of varying sizes. In 1821,
In 2022, two plaster casts of the first complete ichthyosaur skeleton fossil found by Anning that was destroyed in the bombing of London during the Second World War, were discovered in separate collections. One is at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University in the USA and the other at the Natural History Museum in Berlin, Germany. The casts may be secondary, being made from a direct cast of the fossil, but are determined to be of good condition, "historically important", and likely taken from the specimen put for sale at auction by Anning in 1820.[61]
Plesiosaurus
In the same 1821 paper he co-authored with Henry De la Beche on ichthyosaur anatomy, William Conybeare named and described the genus Plesiosaurus (near lizard), called so because he thought it more like modern reptiles than the ichthyosaur had been. The description was based on a number of fossils, the most complete of them specimen OUMNH J.50146, a paddle and vertebral column that had been obtained by Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas James Birch.[62] Christopher McGowan has hypothesised that this specimen had originally been much more complete and had been collected by Anning, during the winter of 1820/1821. If so, it would have been Anning's next major discovery, providing essential information about the newly recognised type of marine reptile. No records by Anning of the find are known.[63] The paper thanked Birch for giving Conybeare access to it, but does not mention who discovered and prepared it.[58][63]
In 1823, Anning discovered a second, much more complete plesiosaur skeleton, specimen BMNH 22656. When Conybeare presented his analysis of plesiosaur anatomy to a meeting of the Geological Society in 1824, he again failed to mention Anning by name, even though she had possibly collected both skeletons and had made the sketch of the second skeleton he used in his presentation. Conybeare's presentation was made at the same meeting at which William Buckland described the dinosaur Megalosaurus and the combination created a sensation in scientific circles.[64][65]
Conybeare's presentation followed the resolution of a controversy over the legitimacy of one of the fossils. The fact that the plesiosaur's long neck had an unprecedented 35 vertebrae raised the suspicions of the eminent French anatomist Georges Cuvier when he reviewed Anning's drawings of the second skeleton, and he wrote to Conybeare suggesting the possibility that the find was a fake produced by combining fossil bones from different kinds of animals. Fraud was far from unknown among early 19th-century fossil collectors, and if the controversy had not been resolved promptly, the accusation could have seriously damaged Anning's ability to sell fossils to other geologists. Cuvier's accusation had resulted in a special meeting of the Geological Society earlier in 1824, which, after some debate, had concluded the skeleton was legitimate. Cuvier later admitted he had acted in haste and was mistaken.[66]
Anning discovered yet another important and nearly complete plesiosaur skeleton in 1830. It was named Plesiosaurus macrocephalus by William Buckland and was described in an 1840 paper by Richard Owen.[21] Once again Owen mentioned the wealthy gentleman who had purchased the fossil and made it available for examination, but not the woman who had discovered and prepared it.[46]
Fossil fish and pterosaur
Anning found what a contemporary newspaper article called an unrivalled specimen of Dapedium politum.[67] This was a ray-finned fish, which would be described in 1828. In December of that same year she made an important find consisting of the partial skeleton of a pterosaur. In 1829 William Buckland described it as Pterodactylus macronyx (later renamed Dimorphodon macronyx by Richard Owen), and unlike many other such occasions, Buckland credited Anning with the discovery in his paper. It was the first pterosaur skeleton found outside Germany, and it created a public sensation when displayed at the British Museum.[21] Recent research[68] has found that these creatures were not inclined to fly continuously in their search for fish.[69]
In December 1829 she found a fossil fish, Squaloraja, which attracted attention because it had characteristics intermediate between sharks and rays.[21]
Invertebrates and trace fossils
Vertebrate fossil finds, especially of
Recognition and legacy
Anning's discoveries became key pieces of evidence for extinction. Georges Cuvier had argued for the reality of extinction in the late 1790s based on his analysis of fossils of mammals such as mammoths. Nevertheless, until the early 1820s it was still believed by many scientifically literate people that just as new species did not appear, so existing ones did not become extinct—in part because they felt that extinction would imply that God's creation had been imperfect; any oddities found were explained away as belonging to animals still living somewhere in an unexplored region of the Earth. The bizarre nature of the fossils found by Anning, — some, such as the plesiosaur, so unlike any known living creature — struck a major blow against this idea.[73]
The ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and
Throughout the 20th century, beginning with H. A. Forde and his The Heroine of Lyme Regis: The Story of Mary Anning the Celebrated Geologist (1925), a number of writers saw Anning's life as inspirational. According to P. J. McCartney in Henry De la Beche: Observations on an Observer (1978), she was the basis of Terry Sullivan's lyrics to the 1908 song [76] which, McCartney claimed, became the popular tongue twister, "She Sells Seashells":[77][78]
She sells seashells on the seashore
The shells she sells are seashells, I'm sure
So if she sells seashells on the seashore
Then I'm sure she sells seashore shells.
However, Stephen Winick of the American Folklife Center has shown that no evidence has been presented for any causal connection between Anning and the lyrics (which are about a music-hall performer who has difficulty with tongue-twisters); in particular, Winick consulted McCartney's original text and discovered that not only did McCartney not provide any sources to support his statement, he merely said that Anning was "reputed to be" the subject of the song. Winick also pointed out that the tongue-twister pre-dated Sullivan by decades, and stated that there is a "very imperfect fit between the details of the song and those of Mary Anning’s life", and "not even a real female character in the song, let alone anyone recognizable as Mary Anning", ultimately concluding that if the song was intended as a tribute to Anning, it is "a pretty ineffective one."[79]
Much of the material written about Anning was aimed at children, and tended to focus on her childhood and early career. Much of it was also highly romanticised and not always historically accurate. Anning has been referenced in several historical novels, most notably in The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969) by John Fowles, who was critical of the fact that no British scientist had named a species after her in her lifetime.[21]
In 1999, on the 200th anniversary of Anning's birth, an international meeting of historians, palaeontologists, fossil collectors, and others interested in her life was held in Lyme Regis.[80] In 2005 the Natural History Museum added Anning, alongside scientists such as Carl Linnaeus, Dorothea Bate, and William Smith, as one of the "gallery characters" (actors dressed in period costumes) it uses to walk around its display cases.[81][82] In 2007, American playwright/performer Claudia Stevens premiered Blue Lias, or the Fish Lizard's Whore, a solo play with music by Allen Shearer depicting Anning in later life. Among the presenters of its thirty performances around the Charles Darwin bicentennial were the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, museums of natural history at the University of Michigan and the University of Kansas, and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History.[83]
In 2009, Tracy Chevalier wrote a historical novel entitled Remarkable Creatures, in which Anning and Elizabeth Philpot were the main characters. Another historical novel about Anning, Curiosity by Joan Thomas, was published in March 2010.[84][85]
In 2010, 163 years after her death, the Royal Society included Anning in a list of the ten British women who have most influenced the history of science.[86]
In 1902, the Lyme Regis Museum was built on the site of her former home. It was commissioned by Thomas Philpot, a relative of the Philpot sisters.[87] The area where she collected fossils is now part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.[88]
In 2021, the Royal Mint issued sets of commemorative £0.50 sterling coins called The Mary Anning Collection minted in acknowledgement of her lack of recognition as 'one of Britain's greatest fossil hunters'.[89] The coins have images of Temnodontosaurus, Plesiosaurus and Dimorphodon, which she discovered, and her discoveries were 'often overlooked at a time when the scientific world was dominated by men',[90] and as 'a working-class woman.'[91]
In March 2024, the Royal Mail issued a set of four stamps celebrating Mary Anning and her discoveries.[92][93][94][95]
Eponyms
The only person who did name a species after Anning during her lifetime was the Swiss-American naturalist,
In 1991 Anning Paterae, a cluster of shallow volcanoes in the northern hemisphere of Venus[99] and in 1999, (3919) Maryanning, an asteroid were named after her.[100] In 2018, a new research and survey vessel was launched as Mary Anning for Swansea University.[101]
Statue of Mary Anning
In August 2018, a campaign called "Mary Anning Rocks" was formed by an 11-year-old schoolgirl from Dorset, Evie Swire, supported by her mother Anya Pearson.[102] The campaign was set up to remember Anning in her hometown of Lyme Regis by erecting a statue and creating a learning legacy in her name.[103] A crowdfunding campaign began but was put on hold due to the coronavirus pandemic;[104] it resumed in November 2020, led by the charity Mary Anning Rocks.[105] By January 2021, Evie Swire's campaign resulted in a commission to sculptor Denise Dutton.[105][106][107] The statue was granted planning permission by Dorset Council for a space overlooking Black Ven, where Anning made many of her finds. Alice Roberts and Evie Swire unveiled the statue on 21 May 2022, the 223rd anniversary of Anning's birth.[108][109]
In fiction
Mary Anning appears in the web manga Learn Even More with Manga!, derived from the 2015 video game Fate/Grand Order. Her depiction in that manga brings several features from Anning's life into play, such as fossil-collecting gear, fossils, and live versions of ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs.[110]
The film Ammonite, directed by Francis Lee, and based on segments of Anning's life and legacy, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 11 September 2020.[111] Kate Winslet portrays Anning and Saoirse Ronan portrays Charlotte Murchison, with the two engaged in a fictional lesbian relationship. The film was released on 13 November 2020 in the US and 26 March 2021 in the UK.[112]
See also
References
- ^ Eylott, Marie-Claire. "Mary Anning: The Unsung Hero of Fossil Discovery". Natural History Museum. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
- ^ Dennis Dean writes that Anning pronounced her name "Annin" (see Dean 1999, p. 58), and when she wrote it for Carl Gustav Carus, a aide to King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, she wrote "Annin's" (see Carus 1846, p. 197).
- ^ a b "Mary Anning". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
- required.)
- ^ a b c d Emling 2009, pp. 11–14
- ^ a b Goodhue 2002, p. 10
- ^ a b Cadbury 2000, pp. 5–6
- ^ Hawkes, Jaquetta (1953). A Land. London: Readers United. pp. 56–57.
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 14–16
- ^ Emling 2009, p. 26
- ^ Cadbury 2000, p. 4
- ^ Cadbury 2000, pp. 6–8
- ^ McGowan 2001, pp. 11–12
- ^ a b c d e f McGowan 2001, pp. 14–21
- ^ Cadbury 2000, pp. 4–5
- ^ Cadbury 2000, p. 9
- ^ a b Dean 1999, p. 58ff
- ^ a b Home 1814
- ^ a b Sharpe & McCartney 1998, p. 15
- ^ a b Howe, Sharpe & Torrens 1981, p. 12
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Torrens 1995
- ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
- ^ Goodhue 2004, p. 84
- ^ a b Torrens 2008
- ^ "Mary Anning". University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
- ^ Berkeley & Berkeley 1988, p. 66
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 98–99, 190–191
- ^ a b Carus 1846, p. 197
- also see Gordon 1894, p. 115
- ^ Emling 2009, p. 172
- ^ Anning, Mary (1839), "Extract of a letter from Miss Anning", The Magazine of Natural History, N.S., 3 (36): 605, BHL page 2270489
- ^ Grant 1825, pp. 131–133, 172–173
- ^ Emling 2009, p. 40
- ^ McGowan 2001, pp. 203–204
- ^ a b Dickens 1865, pp. 60–63
- ^ Emling 2009, p. 35
- ^ McGowan 2001, pp. 26–27
- Emling 2009, pp. 53–56
- ^ Reedman, C. (28 August 2020). "Help raise £18000 to Purchase a letter written by Mary Anning to William Buckland in 1829". JustGiving. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
- ^ a b c Rudwick 2008, pp. 154–158
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 173–176
- ^ McGowan 2001, p. 131
- ^ McGowan 2001, pp. 133–148
- ^ a b Emling 2009, pp. 169–170
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 99–101, 124–125, 171
- ^ Rudwick 1992, pp. 42–47
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 139–145
- ^ a b c Emling 2009, p. 143
- ^ Cadbury 2000, p. 231
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 171–172
- ^ Brice 2001
- ^ McGowan 2001, pp. 200–201
- ^ Anon (1848). "Anniversary Address of the President". The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 4: xxv.
- ^ Taylor, M. A. and Torrens, H. S. (2014). An Anonymous Account of Mary Anning (1799–1847), Fossil Collector of Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, Published in All The Year Round in 1865, and its Attribution to Henry Stuart Fagan (1827–1890), Schoolmaster, Parson, and Author. Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History & Archaeological Society, 135, 71–85.
- ^ "Fossils and Extinction", The Academy of Natural Sciences. Retrieved 23 September 2010. Archived 5 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Emling 2009, pp. 33–41
- ^ a b c Rudwick 2008, pp. 26–30
- ^ Home 1819
- ^ Cadbury 2000, p. 324
- ^ a b De la Beche & Conybeare 1821
- ^ Cadbury 2000, p. 101
- ^ McGowan 2001, p. 210
- Nature, 3 November 2022, with images
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Further reading
Books and journals
- ISBN 978-1-84507-700-6
- Atkins, Jeannine (1999), Mary Anning and the Sea Dragon, Farrar Straus Giroux, ISBN 978-0-374-34840-3
- Brown, Don (2003), Rare Treasure: Mary Anning and Her Remarkable Discoveries, Houghton Mifflin Co, ISBN 978-0-618-31081-4
- ISBN 978-0-452-29672-5
- Cole, Sheila (2005), The Dragon in the Cliff: A Novel Based on the Life of Mary Anning, iUniverse.com, ISBN 978-0-595-35074-2
- Day, Marie (1995), Dragon in the Rocks: A Story Based on the Childhood of the Early Paleontologist, Mary Anning, Maple Tree Press, ISBN 978-1-895688-38-2
- Fradin, Dennis B. (1997), Mary Anning: The Fossil Hunter (Remarkable Children), Silver Burdett Press, ISBN 978-0-382-39487-4
- Gayrard-Valy, Yvette (1 March 1994), Fossils: Evidence of Vanished Worlds, "ISBN 978-0-8109-2824-4
- Goodhue, Thomas W (2005), "Mary Anning: the fossilist as exegete", Endeavour, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 28–32, PMID 15749150
- PMID 10511714
- Pierce, Patricia (2006), Jurassic Mary: Mary Anning and the Primeval Monsters, Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7509-4039-9
- Proffitt, Pamela (1999). Notable women scientists. Detroit: Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-7876-3900-6.
- ISBN 978-0-9527662-0-9
- ISBN 978-1-57505-425-4
Other
- "Mary Anning (1799–1847)". UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology.
- "Collections and research: Mary Anning". Lyme Regis Museum.
- "Mary Anning (1799–1847)". thedorsetpage.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2009.
- "Skull and lower jaw of an ichthyosaur". British Museum. Archived from the original on 19 October 2015.
- "Episode 10: Mary Anning". Babes of Science. 24 May 2016. Archived from the original (podcast) on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
- Pepper, Fiona; Street, Julie. "Mary Anning inspired 'she sells sea shells'—but she was actually a legendary fossil hunter". Late Night Live. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. (article and podcast)
- Tappenden, Roz (16 October 2020). "Ammonite: Who was the real Mary Anning?". BBC News.
External links
- Media related to Mary Anning at Wikimedia Commons
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.