Max Müller
Max Müller | |
---|---|
University of Leipzig | |
Notable works | The Sacred Books of the East, Chips from a German Workshop |
Spouse | Georgina Adelaide Grenfell |
Children | 4, including Wilhelm Grenfell Max Müller |
Signature | |
Friedrich Max Müller (German:
Early life and education
Max Müller was born into a cultured family on 6 December 1823 in Dessau, the son of Wilhelm Müller, a lyric poet whose verse Franz Schubert had set to music in his song-cycles Die schöne Müllerin, and Winterreise. His mother, Adelheid Müller (née von Basedow), was the eldest daughter of a prime minister of Anhalt-Dessau. Carl Maria von Weber was a godfather.[3]
Müller was named after his mother's elder brother, Friedrich, and after the central character, Max, in Weber's opera Der Freischütz. Later in life, he adopted Max as a part of his surname, believing that the prevalence of Müller as a name made it too common.[3] His name was also recorded as "Maximilian" on several official documents (e.g. university register, marriage certificate),[citation needed] on some of his honours[4] and in some other publications.[5]
Müller entered the gymnasium (grammar school) at Dessau when he was six years old. In 1835, at the age of twelve, he was sent to live in the house of Carl Gustav Carus and attend the Nicolai School at Leipzig, where he continued his studies of music and classics.[6] It was during his time in Leipzig that he frequently met Felix Mendelssohn.[3]
In need of a scholarship to attend
Academic career
In 1850 Müller was appointed deputy
He was defeated in the
Later in 1868, Müller became Oxford's first professor of comparative philology, a position founded on his behalf. He held this chair until his death, although he retired from its active duties in 1875.[12]
Scholarly and literary works
Sanskrit studies
In 1844, prior to commencing his academic career at Oxford, Müller studied in
In 1845, Müller moved to Paris to study Sanskrit under
Müller's connections with the East India Company and with Sanskritists based at
Müller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when scholars had started to see language development in relation to cultural development. The recent discovery of the Indo-European language group had started to lead to much speculation about the relationship between Greco-Roman cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the Vedic culture of India was thought to have been the ancestor of European Classical cultures. Scholars sought to compare the genetically related European and Asian languages to reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic language, Sanskrit, was thought to be the oldest of the IE languages.
Müller devoted himself to the study of this language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his day. He believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture should be studied to provide the key to the development of
For Müller, the study of the language had to relate to the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to the view that the development of languages should be tied to that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were little-known in the West, though there was increasing interest in the philosophy of the
For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of
Gifford Lectures
In 1888, Müller was appointed Gifford Lecturer at the University of Glasgow. These Gifford Lectures were the first in an annual series, given at several Scottish universities, that has continued to the present day. Over the next four years, Müller gave four series of lectures.[8] The titles and order of the lectures were as follows:[18]
- Natural Religion. This first course of lectures was intended as purely introductory, and had for its object a definition of Natural Religion in its widest sense.
- Physical Religion. This second course of lectures was intended to show how different nations had arrived at a belief in something infinite behind the finite, in something invisible behind the visible, in many unseen agents or gods of nature, until they reached a belief in one god above all those gods. In short, a history of the discovery of the infinite in nature.
- Anthropological Religion. This third course was intended to show how different nations arrived at a belief in a soul, how they named its various faculties, and what they imagined about its fate after death.
- Theosophy or Psychological Religion. The fourth and last course of lectures was intended to examine the relation between God and the soul ("these two Infinites"), including the ideas that some of the principal nations of the world have formed concerning this relation. Real religion, Müller asserted, is founded on a true perception of the relation of the soul to God and of God to the soul; Müller wanted to prove that this was true, not only as a postulate, but as an historical fact. The original title of the lectures was 'Psychological Religion' but Müller felt compelled to add 'Theosophy' to it. Müller's final Gifford Lecture is significant in interpreting his work broadly, as he situates his philological and historical research within a mystical theological project.[19]
As translator
In 1881, he published a translation of the first edition of
The bridge of thoughts and sighs that spans the whole history of the Aryan world has its first arch in the Veda, its last in Kant's Critique. ... While in the Veda we may study the childhood, we may study in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason the perfect manhood of the Aryan mind. ... The materials are now accessible, and the English-speaking race, the race of the future, will have in Kant's Critique another Aryan heirloom, as precious as the Veda—a work that may be criticised, but can never be ignored.[This quote needs a citation]
Müller continued to be influenced by the Kantian Transcendentalist model of spirituality,[21] and was opposed to Darwinian ideas of human development.[22] He argued that "language forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."[23]
Views on India
Early career
On 25 August 1866, Müller wrote to Chevalier Bunsen:
India is much riper for Christianity than Rome or Greece were at the time of St. Paul. The rotten tree has for some time had artificial supports, because its fall would have been inconvenient for the government. But if the Englishman comes to see that the tree must fall, sooner or later, then the thing is done... I should like to lay down my life, or at least to lend my hand to bring about this struggle... I do not at all like to go to India as a missionary, that makes one dependent on the parsons... I should like to live for ten years quite quietly and learn the language, try to make friends, and see whether I was fit to take part in a work, by means of which the old mischief of Indian priestcraft could be overthrown and the way opened for the entrance of simple Christian teaching...[24]
— The Life And Letters Of The Right Honourable Friedrich Max Müller Vol. I, Chapter X
In his career, Müller several times expressed the view that a "reformation" within Hinduism needed to occur, comparable to the Christian Reformation.[25] In his view, "if there is one thing which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is exposed... Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it in its later states".[26]
He used his links with the
Müller wrote:
The translation of the Veda will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India, and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their religion, and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3,000 years... one ought to be up and doing what may be God's work.[28][29]
Müller hoped that increased funding for education in India would promote a new form of literature combining Western and Indian traditions. In 1868 he wrote to George Campbell, the newly appointed Secretary of State for India:
India has been conquered once, but India must be conquered again, and that second conquest should be a conquest by education. Much has been done for education of late, but if the funds were tripled and quadrupled, that would hardly be enough (...) By encouraging a study of their own ancient literature, as part of their education, a national feeling of pride and self-respect will be reawakened among those who influence the large masses of the people. A new national literature may spring up, impregnated with Western ideas, yet retaining its native spirit and character (...) A new national literature will bring with it a new national life, and new moral vigour. As to religion, that will take care of itself. The missionaries have done far more than they themselves seem to be aware of, nay, much of the work which is theirs they would probably disclaim. The Christianity of our nineteenth century will hardly be the Christianity of India. But the ancient religion of India is doomed—and if Christianity does not step in, whose fault will it be?[30]
— Max Müller (1868)
Late career
In his sixties and seventies, Müller gave a series of lectures, which reflected a more nuanced view in favour of Hinduism and the ancient literature from India. In his "What can India teach us?" lecture at University of Cambridge, he championed ancient Sanskrit literature and India as follows:
If I were to look over the whole world to find out the country most richly endowed with all the wealth, power, and beauty that nature can bestow—in some parts a very paradise on earth—I should point to India. If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most full developed some of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions of some of them which well deserve the attention even of those who have studied Plato and Kant—I should point to India. And if I were to ask myself from what literature we, here in Europe, we who have been nurtured almost exclusively on the thoughts of Greeks and Romans, and of one Semitic race, the Jewish, may draw that corrective which is most wanted in order to make our inner life more perfect, more comprehensive, more universal, in fact more truly human, a life, not for this life only, but a transfigured and eternal life—again I should point to India.[31]
— Max Müller (1883)
He also conjectured that the introduction of Islam in India in the 11th century had a deep effect on the psyche and behaviour of Hindus in another lecture, "Truthful Character of the Hindus":
The other epic poem too, the Mahabharata, is full of episodes showing a profound regard for truth. (...) Were I to quote from all the law-books, and from still later works, everywhere you would hear the same key-note of truthfulness vibrating through them all. (...) I say once more that I do not wish to represent the people of India as two hundred and fifty-three millions of angels, but I do wish it to be understood and to be accepted as a fact, that the damaging charge of untruthfulness brought against that people is utterly unfounded with regard to ancient times. It is not only not true, but the very opposite of the truth. As to modern times, and I date them from about 1000 after Christ (AD), I can only say that, after reading the accounts of the terrors and horrors of Mohammedan rule, my wonder is that so much of native virtue and truthfulness should have survived. You might as well expect a mouse to speak the truth before a cat, as a Hindu before a Mohammedan judge.[32]
— Max Müller (1884)
The visit was really a revelation to me. That little white house, its setting in a beautiful garden, the silver-haired sage, with a face calm and benign, and forehead smooth as a child's in spite of seventy winters, and every line in that face speaking of a deep-seated mine of spirituality somewhere behind; that noble wife, the helpmate of his life through his long and arduous task of exciting interest, overriding opposition and contempt, and at last creating a respect for the thoughts of the sages of ancient India—the trees, the flowers, the calmness, and the clear sky—all these sent me back in imagination to the glorious days of ancient India, the days of our brahmarshis and rajarshis, the days of the great vanaprasthas, the days of Arundhatis and Vasishthas. It was neither the philologist nor the scholar that I saw, but a soul that is every day realizing its oneness with the universe.[33]
Controversies
Anti-Christian
During the course of his
Similar accusations had already led to Müller's exclusion from the Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the conservative Monier Monier-Williams. By the 1880s Müller was being courted by Charles Godfrey Leland, Theosophist Helena Blavatsky, and other writers who were seeking to assert the merits of pagan religious traditions over Christianity. The designer Mary Fraser Tytler stated that Müller's book Chips from a German Workshop (a collection of his essays) was her "Bible", which helped her to create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.[citation needed]
Müller distanced himself from these developments, and remained within the
Although Müller took a strong religious and academic interest in Hinduism and other non-Christian religions, and often compared Christianity to religions that many traditional Protestants would have regarded as primitive or false, he grounded his Perennialism in a belief that Christianity possessed the fullest truth of all living religions.[37] Twenty-first century scholars of religion, far from accusing Müller of being anti-Christian, have critically examined Müller's theological project as evidence for a bias towards Christian conceptions of God in early academic religious studies.[38][39]
Darwin disagreement
Müller attempted to formulate a philosophy of religion that addressed the crisis of faith engendered by the historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on the one hand, and by the
In 1870 Müller gave a short course of three lectures for the British Institution on language as the barrier between man and beast, which he called "On Darwin's Philosophy of Language". Müller specifically disagreed with Darwin's theories on the origin of language and that the language of man could have developed from the language of animals. In 1873, he sent a copy of his lectures to Darwin reassuring him that, though he differed from some of Darwin's conclusions, he was one of his "diligent readers and sincere admirers".[41]
Aryanism
Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo-European ("Aryan") traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms", as this was far from his intention.[42] For Müller, the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians".[43][44]
Turanian
Müller put forward and promoted the theory of a "Turanian" family of languages or speech, comprising the Finnic, Samoyedic, "Tataric" (Turkic), Mongolic, and Tungusic languages.[45] According to Müller, these five languages were those "spoken in Asia or Europe not included under the Arian [sic] and Semitic families, with the exception perhaps of the Chinese and its dialects". In addition, they were "nomadic languages," in contrast to the other two families (Aryan and Semitic), which he called State or political languages.[46]
The idea of a Turanian family of languages was not accepted by everyone at the time.[47] Although the term "Turanian" quickly became an archaism[48] (unlike "Aryan"), it did not disappear completely. The idea was absorbed later into nationalist ideologies in Hungary and Turkey.[49]
Honours
In 1869, Müller was elected to the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres as a foreign correspondent (associé étranger).[4]
In June 1874, Müller was awarded the Pour le Mérite (civil class), much to his surprise. Soon after, when he was commanded to dine at Windsor, he wrote to Prince Leopold to ask if he might wear his Order, and the wire came back, "Not may, but must."[50]
In 1875, Müller was awarded the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art. The award is given to acknowledge excellent and outstanding achievements in the field of science and art. In a letter to his mother dated 19 December, Müller wrote that the award was more showy than the Pour le Mérite, "but that is the best".[51]
In 1896, Müller was appointed a member of the
Personal life
Müller became a naturalised British citizen in 1855, at the age of 32.
He married Georgina Adelaide Grenfell on 3 August 1859 after overcoming the opposition from her family. The couple had four children – Ada, Mary, Beatrice and William Grenfell – of whom two predeceased them.[3]
Georgina (died 1919) had his papers and correspondence bound; they are at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.[53]
Death and legacy
Müller's health began deteriorating in 1898 and he died at his home in Oxford on 28 October 1900. He was interred at Holywell Cemetery on 1 November 1900.[8]
After his death a memorial fund, the Max Müller Memorial Fund, was opened at Oxford for "the promotion of learning and research in all matters relating to the history and archaeology, the languages, literatures, and religions of ancient India".[54]
Harry Smith stated of his film Heaven and Earth Magic: "The first part depicts the heroine's toothache consequent to the loss of a valuable watermelon, her dentistry and transportation to heaven. Next follows an elaborate exposition of the heavenly land in terms of Israel, Montreal and the second part depicts the return to earth from being eaten by Max Müller on the day Edward the Seventh dedicated the Great Sewer of London."[55]
The
Müller's biographies include Van den Bosch (2002), Stone (2002) and Chaudhuri (1974). Nirad C. Chaudhuri's Scholar Extraordinary was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award for English by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.[citation needed] In addition, Stephen G. Alter's 2005 book William Dwight Whitney and the Science of Language contains a chapter on Müller's rivalry with the American linguist William Dwight Whitney.[57]
Publications
Müller's scholarly works, published separately as well as an 18-volume Collected Works, include:
- Nārāyana; Müller, Max (ed. & tr.) (1844). Hitopadesa: eine alte indische Fabelsammlung (in German). Liepzig: F. A. Brockhaus. OCLC 6679332.
- Müller, Max, ed. (1858). The German classics from the fourth to the nineteenth century. London: Longmans. OCLC 793718181.
- Müller, Max (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. London: Williams and Norgate. OCLC 2994706.
- Müller, Max (1866). Lectures on the Science of Language. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 1070792446.
- Müller, Max; Bunsen, C. K. J. (1868–1875). Chips from a German Workshop. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 700979941. 5 vols.
- Müller, Max (1870). Introduction to the Science of Religion. London: Spottiswoode. OCLC 58972203.
- Müller, Max (1878). Lectures on the origin and growth of religion. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 221232055.
- Müller, Max (tr.) (1879–1884). The Upanishads. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 1416388926.
- OCLC 1106845795.
- Müller, Max (1883). India: what Can it Teach Us?. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 458768544.
- Müller, Max (1884). Biographical Essays. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 251576949.
- Müller, Max; OCLC 156080873.
- Müller, Max (1887). The Science of Thought. OCLC 1086677282. 2 vols.
- Müller, Max (1888). Studies in Buddhism. OCLC 844556126.
- Müller, Max (1888). Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 876089311.
- Müller, Max (1888). Natural Religion. OCLC 21342863.
- Müller, F. Max (1890–1892). Rig-Veda-Samhita: The Sacred Hymns of the Brahmans (2nd ed.). London: Henry Frowde. 4 vols.
- Müller, Max (1891). Physical Religion. Gifford Lectures. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 1068602567.
- Müller, Max (1892). Anthropological Religion. Gifford Lectures. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 470344671.
- Müller, Max (1893). Memories. London: A.C. McClurg & Co. OCLC 679733299.
- Müller, Max (1893). Theosophy. Gifford Lectures. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 427662759.
- Müller, Max (1898). Auld Lang Syne. London: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 934825847. 2 vols.
- Müller, Max (1899). The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 458768755.
- Müller, Max (1901). My Autobiography: A Fragment. London and Bombay: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 606296937.
References
Citations
- ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
- ^ "Duden | Max | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition". Duden (in German). Retrieved 20 October 2018.
Mạx
- ^ a b c d e R. C. C. Fynes (May 2007), Müller, Friedrich Max (1823–1900), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, [1], accessed 17 March 2013] (subscription or UK public library membership required)
- ^ a b Académiciens depuis 1663 Archived 10 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
- The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Vol XXII, July–December. The Review of Reviews Company: New York, pp.703–706.
- ^ Müller, F. Max (Friedrich Max) (16 October 2009). My Autobiography: A Fragment. p. 97. Retrieved 19 September 2022 – via Project Gutenberg.
- ^ Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1901). . Dictionary of National Biography (1st supplement). Vol. 3. pp. 151–157.
- ^ a b c Abraham, Sara; Hancock, Brannon. "Friedrich Max Müller". Gifford Lectures. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016.
- ^ Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement.
- ^ Müller (1902), pp. 241–242.
- ^ Müller (1902), p. 244.
- ^ George Sandeman (1907). The Harmsworth Encyclopaedia: Everybody's Book of Reference : containing 50,000 articles, profusely illustrated, Volume 6. The Amalgamated Press. p. 4042.
- ISBN 978-0-415-37302-9.
- ^ "Vedanta Society of New York: Ramakrishna". Archived from the original on 16 September 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
- ISBN 978-81-7201-940-2.
- ISBN 978-0-203-93973-4. Retrieved 25 August 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ "The Science of Language". Retrieved 9 September 2023.
- ^ Müller, F. Max (1895), Theosophy or Psychological Religion. London: Longmans, Green and Co., pp.89–90.
- ^ Josephson-Storm (2017), pp. 108–110.
- ^ The Athenaeum. J. Lection. 1882. p. 629.
At times Prof. Müller has succeeded in correcting an error and in coming closer to his original or has modified the harshness of Mr. Meiklejohn's style; but in other passages we prefer the latter, and of certain general changes made by Prof. Max Müller.
Original from Princeton University - ^ Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, Last Essays by the Right Hon. Professor F. Max Müller ... First Series: Essays on Language, Folklore and Other Subjects; pub. by Longmans, Green and Company, 1901.
- ^ The Twentieth Century, Volume 23. p. 745.
according to Mr. Max Müller, Kant established against Darwin by proving that there is transcendentalist side to human knowledge which affords.
Original from Cornell University - ^ Müller, F. Max. (1899) Three Lectures on the Science of Language, etc., with a Supplement, My Predecessors. 3rd ed. Chicago. p. 9.
- ^ Friedrich Max Müller (1902). The Life And Letters Of The Right Honourable Friedrich Max Müller Vol.i. pp. 191–192.
- JSTOR 3153715.
- ISBN 978-3-11-016328-5.
- ISBN 81-208-4091-7
- ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8112-1456-8.
- ^ Müller (1902), pp. 357–358.
- ^ Max Müller, INDIA – LECTURE I. WHAT CAN INDIA TEACH US?, A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg
- ^ Max Müller, INDIA – LECTURE II. Truthful Character of the Hindus, A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg
- ISBN 978-0-911206-25-8.
- ^ Müller (1902), p. 262.
- ^ Müller (1902), p. 263.
- ^ Beckerlegge, G. (1997) "Professor Friedrich Max Müller and the Missionary Cause". In, John Wolffe (Ed) Religion in Victorian Britain V Culture and Empire. Manchester University Press, p.189.
- ^ Josephson-Storm (2017), pp. 109–10.
- ^ Josephson-Storm (2017), pp. 120–2.
- ISBN 978-0-19-535568-0.
- ^ Josephson-Storm (2017), p. 113.
- ^ Charles Darwin. More Letters of Charles Darwin – Volume 2. p. 397
- ISBN 978-1-84718-587-7.
In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms.
- ^ F. Max Müller (1888) Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas. Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120
- ISBN 0-7914-5532-7
- ^ Müller, M. (1854) The last results of the researches respecting the non-Iranian and non-Semitic languages of Asia or Europe, or the Turanian family of language. (Letter of Professor Max Müller to Chevalier Bunsen; Oxford August 1853; on the classification of the Turanian languages). In, Christian Bunsen (1854) Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, Applied to Language and Religion. In Two Volumes. Vol. 1. London: Brown, Green, and Longmans.
- ^ M. Müller (1855) The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian. London: Williams and Norgate, p. 86.
- ISBN 978-0-203-48035-9.
In 1910, a full decade after Müller's death, the Turan Tarsasag 'Turanian Society' was founded in order to study the history and culture of the Hungarians and other 'Turanian' peoples.
- ISBN 0-226-50989-3
- ^ Günay Göksu Özdoğan: The case of racism-Turanism: Turkism during single-party period, 1931–1944: a radical variant of Turkish nationalism
- ^ Müller (1902), p. 462.
- ^ Müller (1902), p. 503.
- ^ "No. 26754". The London Gazette. 30 June 1896. p. 3767.
- ^ "Max Muller Papers". Retrieved 25 August 2016.
- Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford.
- ^ "No. 12: Heaven and Earth Magic | Film Studies Center | University of Chicago". Archived from the original on 12 June 2010.
- ^ About Max Mueller. Goethe-Institut / Max Mueller Bhavan.
- ^ Alter (2005).
Cited sources
- Alter, Stephen G. (2005). "The Battle with Max Müller". William Dwight Whitney and the Science of Language. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 174–207. ISBN 978-0-8018-8020-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7011-1944-7.
- Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-40336-6.
- Müller, Georgina (1902). The Life and Letters of Right Honorable Friedrich Max Müller. Vol. 1. London: Longman.
- Stone, Jon R. (2002). The Essential Max Müller: On Language, Mythology, and Religion. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29309-3.
- Van den Bosch, Lourens (2002). Friedrich Max Müller: A Life Devoted to Humanities. E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12505-6.
Further reading
- Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-02860-6.
- Davis, John R.; Nicholls, Angus (2016). "Friedrich Max Müller: The Career and Intellectual Trajectory of a German Philologist in Victorian Britain". Publications of the English Goethe Society. 85 (2–3): 67–97. doi:10.1080/09593683.2016.1224493.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - Davis, John R.; Nicholls, Angus, eds. (2017). Friedrich Max Müller and the Role of Philology in Victorian Thought. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138633841.
- Leopold, Joan (1970). "The Aryan Theory of Race in India 1870–1920". The Indian Economic and Social History Review. VII: 271–97. S2CID 144438773.
- Leopold, Joan (1974). "British Applications of the Aryan Theory of Race to India 1850 70". The English Historical Review. LXXXIX: 578–603. . Winner of Universities Essay Prize, Royal Asiatic Society, London.
- Leopold, Joan (1984). "Friedrich Max Müller and the question of the early Indo Europeans (1847–1851". Études inter-ethniques, Annales du Centre d'études supérieures et de recherches sur les relations ethniques et le racisme. VII. Paris: 21–32.
- Leopold, Joan (1987) [delivered at Princeton, 1984]. "Ethnic Stereotypes in Linguistics: The Case of Friedrich Max Müller (1847–1851)". In Aarsleff, H.; Kelly, L. G.; Niederehe, H. J. (eds.). Papers in the History of Linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. pp. 501–12.
- Leopold, Joan, ed. (1999). The Prix Volney: Contributions to Comparative Indo-European, African and Chinese Linguistics: Max Müller and Steinthal. Prix Volney Essay Series. Vol. III. Dordrecht and Boston: Springer. ISBN 978-0792325079. With full bibliography of works.
- Leopold, Joan (2002). "Steinthal and Max Müller: Comparative Lives". In Wiedebach, Hartwig; Winkelmann, Annette (eds.). Chajim H. Steinthal, Sprachwissenschaflter und Philosoph im 19. Jahrhundert. Linguist and Philosopher in the 19th Century. Studies in European Judaism. Vol. IV. Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill. pp. 31–49.
- Molendijk, Arie (2016). Friedrich Max Müller and the Sacred Books of the East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198784234.
- Subin, Anna Della (2022). Accidental Gods: On Race, Empire, and Men Unwittingly Turned Divine. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-1250848994.
- Vivekananda, Swami (6 June 1896). "On Professor Max Müller". Brahmâvadin. London.
External links
- Works by Max Müller at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Max Müller at Internet Archive
- Works by Max Müller at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Friedrich Max Müller at Online Library of Liberty