Mayoralty of Michael Bloomberg
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The mayoralty of Michael Bloomberg began on January 1, 2002, when Michael Bloomberg was inaugurated as the 108th mayor of New York City, and ended on December 31, 2013.
Bloomberg was known as a political
Elections and re-elections
2001 election
In 2001, the incumbent mayor of New York City, Rudy Giuliani, was ineligible for re-election, as the city limited the mayoralty to two consecutive terms. Several well-known New York City politicians aspired to succeed him. Bloomberg, a lifelong member of the Democratic Party, decided to run for mayor as a member of the Republican Party ticket.
Voting in the primary began on the morning of September 11, 2001. The primary was postponed later that day because of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center.[4] In the rescheduled primary, Bloomberg defeated Herman Badillo, a former Congressman, to become the Republican nominee. Meanwhile, the Democratic primary did not produce a first-round winner. After a runoff, the Democratic nomination went to New York City Public Advocate Mark Green.
In the general election, Bloomberg received Giuliani's endorsement. He also had a huge spending advantage. Although New York City's public campaign finance law restricts the size of contributions which a candidate can accept, Bloomberg chose not to use public campaign funds and instead self-financed his campaign.[5] He spent $73 million of his own money on his campaign, outspending Green five to one.[6] One of the major themes of his campaign was that, with the city's economy suffering from the effects of the World Trade Center attacks, it needed a mayor with business experience.
In addition to serving as the Republican nominee, Bloomberg had the ballot line of the
Bloomberg's election marked the first time in New York City history that two different Republicans had been elected mayor consecutively. New York City has not been won by a Republican in a presidential election since
In 2002, Bloomberg delivered bids from New York City to host both the Democratic and Republican nominating conventions for the
2005 election
Bloomberg was re-elected mayor in November 2005 by a margin of 20 percent, the widest margin ever for a Republican mayor of New York.[9]
Bloomberg had spent $102 million on his campaign by late October 2005.[10] In late 2004 or early 2005, Bloomberg gave the Independence Party of New York $250,000 to fund a phone bank seeking to recruit volunteers for his re-election campaign.[11]
Former Bronx Borough President
Bloomberg opposed the confirmation of
In addition to receiving Republican support, Bloomberg obtained the endorsements of several prominent Democrats: former Democratic Mayor
2009 election
On October 2, 2008, Bloomberg announced that he would seek to extend the
Bloomberg's bid for a third term generated some controversy.
Bloomberg's opponent was
After the release of Independence Party campaign filings in January 2010, it was reported that Bloomberg had made two $600,000 contributions from his personal account to the Independence Party on October 30 and November 2, 2009.[31] The Independence Party then paid $750,000 of that money to Republican Party political operative John Haggerty Jr.[32]
This prompted an investigation beginning in February 2010 by the office of
2013 election endorsements
On September 13, 2013, Bloomberg announced that he would not endorse any of then current candidates to succeed him.[38][39] On his radio show, he stated, "I don't want to do anything that complicates it for the next mayor. And that's one of the reasons I've decided I'm just not going to make an endorsement in the race." He added, "I want to make sure that person is ready to succeed, to take what we've done and build on that."
Prior to the announcement in an interview in
Earlier in the month, Bloomberg was chastised in the press for his remarks regarding Democratic mayoral candidate Bill de Blasio's campaign methods.[42] Bloomberg said initially in the New York magazine interview that he considered de Blasio's campaign "racist".[43]
Well, no, no, I mean he's making an appeal using his family to gain support. I think it's pretty obvious to anyone watching what he's been doing. I do not think he himself is racist. It's comparable to me pointing out I'm Jewish in attracting the Jewish vote. You tailor messages to your audiences and address issues you think your audience cares about.[43]
Public opinion
Throughout 2006 and 2007, Bloomberg had approval ratings consistently above 70%, according to the
Bloomberg had a 49% approval rating in August 2010 compared to 56% in April.
In November 2010, a Public Policy Polling survey of registered voters found that 19% expressed a favorable opinion of Bloomberg, while an 38% plurality expressed a negative view.[46]
Five months before the end of Bloomberg's tenure, a New York Times survey placed his approval rating at 49%, against 40% who disapproved.[47] In a January 2014 Quinnipiac poll, 64 percent of voters called Bloomberg's 12 years as mayor "mainly a success."[48]
Public initiatives
Infrastructure
Technology
Bloomberg came into office with a view that technology could not only make New York City government more efficient and responsive, but more transparent as well. His first major technology initiative was the consolidation of the City of New York's thousands of individual agency phone numbers into one three-digit number, 3–1–1. Bloomberg felt that a single phone number would be easy for New Yorkers to remember. The 311 deployment was of such importance that he assigned his daughter, Emma Bloomberg, who joined the administration without accepting a salary, to work closely with Commissioner Gino P. Menchini of the Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications (DoITT) to ensure that the project moved along swiftly.[49] Although the project was greeted with skepticism, in 2003, 311 went live and it has since become one of the hallmark achievements of the Bloomberg Administration.[50] In June 2007, 311 received its 50 millionth call, and Bloomberg himself fielded the 100 millionth call in May 2010.[51]
Another of Bloomberg's technology initiatives was the creation of
Transportation
Bloomberg stated that he rides the
Preservation and development
Bloomberg is a proponent of large-scale
Economy
Bloomberg characterizes himself as a
Being a fiscal conservative is not about slashing programs that help the poor, or improve health care, or ensure a social safety net. It's about insisting services are provided efficiently, get to only the people that need them, and achieve the desired results. Fiscal conservatives have hearts too – but we also insist on using our brains, and that means demanding results and holding government accountable for producing them.
To me, fiscal conservatism means balancing budgets – not running deficits that the next generation can't afford. It means improving the efficiency of delivering services by finding innovative ways to do more with less. It means cutting taxes when possible and prudent to do so, raising them overall only when necessary to balance the budget, and only in combination with spending cuts. It means when you run a surplus, you save it; you don't squander it. And most importantly, being a fiscal conservative means preparing for the inevitable economic downturns – and by all indications, we've got one coming.— Michael Bloomberg, speech toUK Conservative Party, September 30, 2007[63]
Bloomberg has expressed a distaste for taxes, stating, "Taxes are not good things, but if you want services, somebody's got to pay for them, so they're a necessary evil."[64] As mayor, he did raise property taxes to fund budget projects; however, in January 2007 he proposed cuts in property taxes by five percent and cuts in sales taxes, including the elimination of taxes on clothing and footwear. Bloomberg pointed to the Wall Street profits and the real estate market as evidence that the city's economy is booming and could handle a tax break.[65]
Bloomberg's self-described fiscal conservatism also led him to eliminate the existing $6-billion deficit when he assumed office. Bloomberg balanced the budget of New York City by raising
In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, Bloomberg and Governor
In 2002, when New York City's transit workers threatened to strike, Bloomberg responded by riding a mountain bike through the city to show how the city could deal with the transit strike by finding alternate means of transportation and not pandering to the unions.[69] Three years later, a clash between Bloomberg and the New York City Transit Authority over wages and union benefits led to a full blown strike that lasted three days. Negotiations led to the end of the strike in December 2005, but controversy exists over Bloomberg's handling of the situation.[70]
Bloomberg is a staunch advocate of
Bloomberg has placed a strong emphasis on
Bloomberg has expressed concern about poverty and growing class divisions, stating, "This society cannot go forward, the way we have been going forward, where the gap between the rich and the poor keeps growing."[71]
Environment
Bloomberg was one of the most active big city mayors on the issue of the environment. On April 22, 2007, he announced PLANYC: an aggressive program to vastly improve New York City's environmental sustainability by 2030.
Bloomberg's DEP Commissioner Christopher O. Ward was able to implement the Long Island Sound Nitrogen Reduction Program, federal approval of the Filtration Avoidance Agreement for the Protection and Water Quality of the Upstate Reservoir System, and the funding and completion of the Manhattan segment of the third water tunnel.[80][81][82]
In 2012, Travel + Leisure rated New York City the "Dirtiest American City," for having the most unremoved, publicly visible litter.[83] Air quality in the city, however, was the cleanest it had been in 50 years under Bloomberg.[84]
In dealing with
On February 14, 2013, Bloomberg called for a ban on Styrofoam food packaging. He asked to begin recycling more plastics and food waste.[87]
On February 21, 2013, Bloomberg spoke with oil tycoon T. Boone Pickens in support of a new eco-friendly food truck. A press conference took place in front of city hall where the company, Neapolitan Express, explained how their mobile pizzeria emits 75% less greenhouse gases than trucks running on gas or diesel. The company was expected to launch early 2013.[88]
Social issues
Same-sex marriage
Bloomberg supported the legalization of same-sex marriage in New York. Still, he appealed a decision finding the limiting of same-sex marriage in the state of New York unconstitutional. "My personal opinion is that anybody should be allowed to marry anybody. I don't happen to think we should put restrictions on who you should marry. ... What the city doesn't want to have happen is people getting a marriage license and then six months, or one year later, or two years later, finding out it's meaningless," he said.[89]
Immigration
Bloomberg was a supporter of immigration reform to secure the rights of undocumented immigrants, who comprise a large part of the population of New York City. He argued that deportation breaks up families and scares undocumented immigrants away from cooperating with law enforcement or accessing vital social services; as such, he supported proposals like those put forth by U.S. Senators Ted Kennedy and John McCain, which would normalize the status of otherwise law-abiding undocumented immigrants already present. Bloomberg also believed that border enforcement is somewhat futile. He told the US Senate Judiciary Committee Field Hearing on Federal Immigration Legislation on July 5, 2006: "It is as if we expect border control agents to do what a century of communism could not: Defeat the natural forces of supply and demand and defeat the natural human instinct for freedom and opportunity. You might as well sit on the beach and tell the tide not to come in."[90]
He also issued
Crime
During Bloomberg's tenure, the reduction of crime that began during Mayor Rudy Giuliani's tenure[93] continued. Bloomberg's approach to the issue was more low-key than that of Giuliani, who was often criticized by advocates for the homeless and civil rights groups. However, there exists some criticism that the reduced-crime statistics are frequently falsified or doctored to exaggerate the reduction.[94][95] According to Salon.com, "[w]hile Bloomberg has kept aspects of the Giuliani management style in place, he has seriously dialed back the shouty rhetoric."[96]
Raymond Kelly, Bloomberg's police commissioner from 2002, in his financial disclosures, "reported six shared plane flights to Florida in 2008 and five more in 2009, provided by Mayor ... Bloomberg at an undetermined cost."[97]
Bloomberg came under fire for supporting the NYPD's
One newspaper and one news service, they just keep saying 'oh it's a disproportionate percentage of a particular ethnic group.' That may be, but it's not a disproportionate percentage of those who witnesses and victims describe as committing the [crime]. In that case, incidentally, I think we disproportionately stop whites too much and minorities too little.[100]
In February 2020, an audio recording surfaced of Michael Bloomberg defending the program at a February 2015 Aspen Institute event. In the speech, Bloomberg said:
Ninety-five percent of murders—murderers and murder victims fit one M.O. You can just take the description, Xerox it, and pass it out to all the cops. They are male, minorities, 16 to 25. That's true in New York, that's true in virtually every city (inaudible). And that's where the real crime is. You've got to get the guns out of the hands of people that are getting killed. So you want to spend the money on a lot of cops in the streets. Put those cops where the crime is, which means in minority neighborhoods. So one of the unintended consequences is people say, 'Oh my God, you are arresting kids for marijuana that are all minorities.' Yes, that's true. Why? Because we put all the cops in minority neighborhoods. Yes, that's true. Why do we do it? Because that's where all the crime is. And the way you get the guns out of the kids' hands is to throw them up against the wall and frisk them... And then they start... 'Oh I don't want to get caught.' So they don't bring the gun. They still have a gun, but they leave it at home.[101][102][103]
Terrorism
Beginning in 2003, Bloomberg became increasingly assertive in demanding that federal homeland security funds be distributed to municipalities based on risk – such as New York City – and population rather than any other measure. In an appearance before the United States Senate he argued that federal security funds should not be indiscriminately distributed, spread like "peanut butter."[104]
In 2008, Bloomberg, along with
Warrantless surveillance of Muslims
After the September 11 attacks, with assistance from the Central Intelligence Agency, Bloomberg's administration oversaw a controversial "suspicionless domestic surveillance" program through the New York City Police Department that surveilled Muslim communities on the basis of their religion, ethnicity, and language.[107][108] An eight-person NYPD unit profiled and surveilled schools, bookstores, cafes, restaurants, nightclubs, and every single mosque within 100 miles (160 km) of New York City using undercover informants and officers.[109] The program was exposed in 2011 by the Associated Press in a Pulitzer Prize-winning series of investigative reports.[110] The program was discontinued in 2014.[111][107]
Gun control
Bloomberg is a strong advocate of
Bloomberg once said, "I don't know why people carry guns. Guns kill people ...". Bloomberg is also a co-chair and founder of
In 2006, Bloomberg conducted a number of
Tax and fiscal policies
Facing a severe fiscal crisis after the
In 2004 and 2005, the city experienced record surpluses, but financial experts and Bloomberg administration officials warned about unfunded future pension costs owed to city workers. In response, in 2006 Bloomberg set aside $2 billion for a city-retirees' health fund. Some critics, however, characterized this move as representing a lack of political courage on Bloomberg's part insofar as he did it to avoid facing the prospect of reducing New York City government payrolls, a move which they argued would have provided a more fiscally responsible long-term solution. Some of these critics claim that bloated government payrolls are one of the main reasons why New York City has one of the highest tax rates in the United States.[119] Nevertheless, by 2013, the Bloomberg administration had reduced the number of city employees by around 10,000 according to the New York City Independent Budget Office.[120]
In August 2010, Bloomberg made controversial comments on a radio show, referring to uncollected taxes on cigarettes sold on Indian reservations in New York State. Bloomberg commented facetiously that the governor should, "you know, get yourself a cowboy hat and a shotgun. If there's ever a great video, it's you standing in the middle of the New York State Thruway saying, you know, 'Read my lips: The law of the land is this, and we're going to enforce the law.'"
Housing
Over the three years prior to June 2006, housing rents in New York City rose faster than inflation while inflation-adjusted incomes fell, according to a report by New York University.[125]
The report indicated that New Yorkers with low or moderate incomes spent increasing proportions of their wages and salaries on housing costs. The quantity of units available at rents affordable to city households earning 42 percent or less fell by 205,000 units in three years prior to the report. Lower-income residents had greater difficulty with the housing cost changes. During the period from 2002 to 2005, low-income families (in private-market housing) spent 43.9 percent of their incomes on rent, on average.[126]
Bloomberg increased city funding for the new development of affordable housing through a plan that created and preserved an estimated 160,000 affordable homes in the city.[127][128]
Commission on LGBTQ+ Homeless Youth
In 2010, a commission of 24 leaders wrote a report to advise the Mayor's office on the problem of LGBTQ+ youth without homes or shelter.[129] The commission submitted 10 recommendations for how to address LGBTQ+ youth homelessness, including "Family Matters," which focused on family reconciliation and the formation of family support networks, and the establishment of alternative family structures. Additional recommendations were LGBTQ+ health services and improving coordination of LGBTQ+ organizations. The health services subgroup named, "Improving LGBTQ Runaway and Homeless Youth Services," focused on social services and public health education. The group called "Building Constituencies" was directed to help youth organizations and agencies find common ground on ways to support LGBTQ+ youth.[129][130]
Development
Mayor Bloomberg and his Deputy Mayor for Economic Development & Rebuilding
One of Mayor Bloomberg's largest successes in New York City development was to revitalize
Poverty
Bloomberg planned to make poverty reduction the central focus of his second term. In 2006 he appointed a Commission on Economic Opportunity to come up with innovative ideas to address poverty in the city. The commission's initial report was released in September 2006.
According to the United States Census Bureau the city's poverty rate of 19 percent in 2004 had not changed since 2001, while in Manhattan the earnings of the top fifth of earners ($330,244 on average) were 41 times the earnings of the bottom fifth ($8,019 on average).
The Mayor's Commission issued a 52-page report on September 18, 2006, entitled, Increasing Opportunity and Reducing Poverty in New York City,[132] arguing that it would be counterproductive to try to focus on everyone's problems, and instead would concentrate on three groups: very young children, young adults, and the working poor. By targeting these critical groups, the Commission believed it could best combat poverty overall. However, the focus was criticized by those who would like a focus on other groups—including the elderly, the unemployed, the homeless, and those recently released from prison. The New York Times reported that little new city money was likely to be invested to fight poverty; management reform was the main source of improvements. For example, the Times noted that food stamp administration would be important for all three of the groups targeted by the commission. Food stamps are fully funded by the federal government, so any expansion of their use would be a cost-free reform for the city.
In late May 2011, he was criticized for a budget proposal which would close 110 day care centers in the city, according to the public advocate's office.[133]
In 2013, Bloomberg was honored by the Children's Aid Society for his work to combat poverty in the city. Between 2000 and 2013, a period during which the poverty rate nationally climbed 28 percent, New York City's poverty rate remained unchanged. It was the only one of the nation's 20 largest cities to hold the line on poverty during that time.[134][135]
Education
After winning election, Bloomberg convinced the state legislature to grant him authority over the city's public school system.[136] From 1968 until 2002, New York City's schools were managed by the Board of Education, which had seven members. Only two of the seven were appointed by the mayor, which meant the city had a minority of representatives on the board and the mayor's ability to shape education policy was greatly diminished. In addition to the Board, 25 local school boards also played a part in running the system. In 2002, at Bloomberg's urging, the local boards and Board of Education were abolished and replaced with a new mayoral agency, the Department of Education.
Bloomberg appointed Joel Klein as Schools Chancellor to run the new department, which was based at the renovated Tweed Courthouse near City Hall. Under Bloomberg and Chancellor Klein, test scores rose, and the City obtained a higher percentage of funding from the state budget.[136] Graduation rates also increased.[136] Bloomberg opposed social promotion, and favored after-school and summer-school programs to help schoolchildren catch up, rather than allowing them to advance to the next grade level where they may be unprepared. Despite often tense relations with teachers' unions, he avoided a teacher strike by concluding a contract negotiation in which teachers received an average raise of 15% in exchange for givebacks and productivity increases.[137] Teachers overall got a 43 percent salary increase[136]
Bloomberg enforced a strengthened cell-phone ban in city schools that had its roots dating to a 1988 school system ban on pagers. The ban is controversial among some parents, who are concerned with their ability to contact their children. Administration representatives noted that students are distracted in class by cell phones and often use them inappropriately, in some instances sending and receiving text messages, taking photographs, surfing the Internet, and playing video games, and that cell-phone bans exist in other cities including Detroit and Philadelphia.[citation needed]
On May 27, 2007, Bloomberg announced that the four-year high school graduation rate in New York City had reached 60%, the highest level since the city began calculating the rate in 1986 and an 18% increase since the Mayor assumed control of the public schools in 2002.[138]
On June 30, 2009, mayoral control lapsed as the New York State Senate declined to renew it. However, mayoral control was restored less than two months later, with a few amendments.[139] Mayoral control allows New York's mayor to have, in practice, complete control of the school system.[140]
Health
Bloomberg donated millions of dollars to the
Bloomberg extended New York City's smoking ban to all commercial establishments, including bars and nightclubs. This reform removed the last indoor public areas in which one could smoke in the city. The smoking ban took effect in March 2003 and remains part of city law today. Bloomberg's smoking ban was considered trendsetting and many municipalities in North America and Europe have subsequently enacted similar bans.
In June 2005 Bloomberg signed the
On December 5, 2006, New York City became the first city in the United States to ban
In January 2010, the Bloomberg administration unveiled a plan to reduce the amount of salt in packages and food served at restaurants by 25 percent by 2015.[143]
In May 2012, Bloomberg announced a plan to restrict the sale of sugary soft drinks in venues, restaurants and sidewalk carts to 16 ounces (473 ml).
On March 18, 2013, Bloomberg said he wanted legislation to keep cigarettes out of sight in New York City stores. He announced his proposed "Tobacco Product Display Bill", which would have required all stores to keep cigarettes hidden from plain view.
Political relations
Support for congressional candidates in and out of the New York area
Since 2000, Bloomberg has donated to dozens of candidates for the United States Congress. The candidates have been on both sides of the aisle.[148] In July 2016, Bloomberg spoke at the Democratic National Convention, endorsing former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's presidential bid.[149] In June 2018, Bloomberg announced he would spend $80 million to support Democratic candidates in an effort to reverse control of Congress in the midterm elections.[150]
2004 Republican National Convention
While Bloomberg was mayor, New York City hosted the 2004 Republican National Convention, to the opposition of thousands of residents of the heavily Democratic city.
At the convention, Bloomberg endorsed George W. Bush for President.[151]
Bloomberg was particularly criticized for his handling of
The Parks Department denied a permit for an anti-war march organized by
The National Council of Arab Americans and the
Several of the documents in question indicate that Bloomberg received regular updates regarding the status of the permits. For example, an email from Parks Commissioner Adrian Benepe informed Bloomberg that "following your call," he received assurance that the denial letter would go out on July 11. Benepe also went to the Great Lawn himself to see if there was any activity and personally emailed the mayor to let him know there was no demonstration there.[154]
9/11 first responders
On August 14, 2006, Governor
Bloomberg was criticized for not allowing many emergency officials who responded to the September 11, 2001, attacks to attend the tenth anniversary observation of that day.[157] He was also at odds with many around the U.S. for not inviting any clergy to the ceremony marking the anniversary of the 9/11 attacks.[158]
Statements concerning the Iraq war
In 2004, during a joint news conference with First Lady Laura Bush in lower Manhattan, he came to her support on the topic of Iraq, saying, "Don't forget that the war started not very many blocks from here."[159]
In March 2007, during a news conference in Staten Island, Bloomberg declared his strong opposition to legislation proposed in Congress calling for a clear timetable for troop withdrawal. He said, "We ask our young men and women to go over and to fight, and if you have a deadline knowing they're pulling out, how can you expect them to defend this country? How can you expect them to go out and put their lives at risk? I just think that's untenable and that this is not a responsible piece of legislation. It is totally separate of how we're conducting the war. It's totally separate of whether we should have been there. The issue that you asked about is plain and simple: Should the Congress pass a law forcing the president to withdraw troops at a given point in time? I think that is not something that is in the country's interest or in the military's interest."[160]
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Further reading
- Arnold, R. Douglas, and Nicholas Carnes. "Holding mayors accountable: New York's executives from Koch to Bloomberg." American Journal of Political Science 56.4 (2012): 949-963. online
- Brash, Julian (2010). Bloomberg's New York: Class and Governance in the Luxury City. JSTOR j.ctt46njt6. Uses anthropology and geography to examine the mayor's corporate-style governance, with particular attention to the Hudson Yards plan, which aims to transform the far West Side into a high-end district.
- Brash, Julian. "The ghost in the machine: the neoliberal urban visions of Michael Bloomberg." Journal of Cultural Geography 29.2 (2012): 135-153.
- Brash, Julian (2012). "The ghost in the machine: The neoliberal urban visions of Michael Bloomberg". Journal of Cultural Geography. 29 (2): 135–153. S2CID 144586994.
- Chatman, Danielle Terrilyn. "Historical Educational Policy Study on School Closures and School Choice During the Bloomberg Administration" (EdD dissertation, Fordham University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2021. 28418306).
- Chelle, Élisa. "An urban laboratory: New York on the policy market in the fight against poverty." Revue française de science politique (English Edition) 63.5 (2013): 81-103. online
- Chronopoulos, Themis, and Jonathan Soffer. "Introduction. After the urban crisis: New York and the rise of inequality." Journal of Urban History 43.6 (2017): 855-863. online
- David, Greg (April 10, 2012). Modern New York: The Life and Economics of a City. St. Martin's Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-00040-8.
- Giroux, Henry A. "Business Culture and the Death of Public Education: Mayor Bloomberg, David Steiner, and the politics of corporate ‘leadership’." Policy Futures in Education 9.5 (2011): 553-559. online
- Klein, Richard (2014). "Nanny Bloomberg". Society. 51 (3): 253–257. S2CID 189869991.
- Larson, Scott. "Building like Moses with Jacobs in mind: Redevelopment politics in the Bloomberg Administration" (PhD dissertation, City University of New York; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2010. 3412099).
- Lewis, Heather. New York City public schools from Brownsville to Bloomberg: Community control and its legacy (Teachers College Press, 2015) online.
- McNickle, Chris. Bloomberg: A Billionaire's Ambition (Simon and Schuster, 2017), scholarly study of mayoralty online
- Randolph, Eleanor. The many lives of Michael Bloomberg (Simon & Schuster, 2021) online.
Primary sources
- Bloomberg, Michael R. Bloomberg by Bloomberg (2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2019) online.
- Bloomberg, Michael R. et al. The Mayor's Management Report: 2011 . online