Masuria
Masuria
Mazury | |
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Ethnographic and geographic region | |
UTC+2 (CEST) | |
Primary airport | Olsztyn-Mazury Airport |
Highways |
Masuria (
Masuria is bordered by Warmia, Powiśle and Chełmno Land in the west, Mazovia in the south, Podlachia and Suwałki Region in the east, and Lithuania Minor in the north.
History
Prehistory and early history
Some of the earliest archeological finds in Masuria were found at
The Greek explorer
Old Prussians
Before the 13th century, the territory was inhabited by Old (Baltic) Prussians, a Baltic
Estimates range from about 170,000 to 220,000 Old Prussians living in the whole of Prussia around 1200.[9] The wilderness was their natural barrier against attack by would-be invaders. During the Northern Crusades of the early 13th century, the Old Prussians used this wide forest as a broad zone of defence. They did so again against the Knights of the Teutonic Order, who had been invited to Poland by Konrad I of Masovia in 1226.[10] The order's goal was to convert the native population to Christianity and baptise it by force if necessary. In the subsequent conquest, which lasted over 50 years, the original population was partly exterminated, particularly during the major Prussian rebellion of 1261–83. But several Prussian noble families also accommodated the Knights in order to hold their power and possessions.[10]
Teutonic Order
After the Order's acquisition of Prussia, Poles (or more specifically,
Ducal Prussia
The
Masuria became one of the leading centers of Polish Protestantism. In the mid-16th century Lyck (Ełk) and Angerburg (Węgorzewo) became significant Polish printing centers.[18] A renowned Polish high school, which attracted Polish students from different regions, was founded in Ełk in eastern Masuria in 1546 by Hieronim Malecki, Polish translator and publisher, who contributed to the creation of the standards and patterns of the Polish literary language. The westernmost part of Masuria, the Osterode (Ostróda) county, in 1633 came under the administration of one of the last dukes of the Piast dynasty, John Christian of Brieg.
In 1656, during the
After the death of
Kingdom of Prussia
The region became part of the Kingdom of Prussia with the coronation of King Frederick I of Prussia in 1701 in Königsberg. Masuria became part of a newly created administrative province of East Prussia upon its creation in 1773. The name Masuria began to be used officially after new administrative reforms in Prussia after 1818.[24] Masurians referred to themselves during that period as "Polish Prussians" or as "Staroprusaki" (Old Prussians)[25] During the Napoleonic Wars and Polish national liberation struggles, in 1807, several towns of northern and eastern Masuria were taken over by Polish troops under the command of generals Jan Henryk Dąbrowski and Józef Zajączek. Some Masurians showed considerable support for the Polish uprising in 1831, and maintained many contacts with Russian-held areas of Poland beyond the border of Prussia, the areas being connected by common culture and language; before the uprising people visited each other's country fairs and much trade took place, with smuggling also widespread.[25] Nevertheless, their Lutheran belief and a traditional adherence to the Prussian royal family kept Masurians and Poles separated. Some early writers about Masurians - like Max Toeppen - postulated Masurians in general as mediators between German and Slav cultures.[25]
Germanisation policies in Masuria included various strategies, first and foremost they included attempts to propagate the German language and to eradicate the Polish (Masurian) language as much as possible; German became the obligatory language in schools from 1834 on.[25] The Lutheran churches and their vicars principally exerted their spiritual care in Masurian as concerned to Masurian mother tongue parishioners.
Ethno-linguistic structure
Mother tongue of the inhabitants of Masuria, by county, during the first half of the 19th century:
County (German name) | Year | Polish-speakers | % | German-speakers | % | Lithuanian-speakers | % | Total population |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pisz (Johannisburg) | 1825 | 28,552 | 93% | 2,146 | 7% | 0 | 0% | 30,698 |
Nidzica (Neidenburg) | 1825 | 27,467 | 93% | 2,149 | 7% | 1 | 0% | 29,617 |
Szczytno (Ortelsburg) | 1825 | 34,928 | 92% | 3,100 | 8% | 0 | 0% | 38,028 |
Ełk (Lyck) | 1832 | 29,246 | 90% | 3,413 | 10% | 4 | 0% | 32,663 |
Giżycko (Lötzen) | 1832 | 20,434 | 89% | 2,528 | 11% | 25 | 0% | 22,987 |
Mrągowo (Sensburg) | 1825 | 22,391 | 86% | 3,769 | 14% | 5 | 0% | 26,165 |
Olecko (Oletzko) | 1832 | 23,302 | 84% | 4,328 | 16% | 22 | 0% | 27,652 |
Ostróda (Osterode) | 1828 | 23,577 | 72% | 9,268 | 28% | 0 | 0% | 32,845 |
Węgorzewo (Angerburg) | 1825 | 12,535 | 52% | 11,756 | 48% | 60 | 0% | 24,351 |
Gołdap (Goldap) | 1825 | 3,940 | 16% | 17,412 | 70% | 3,559 | 14% | 24,911 |
TOTAL | 1825-32 | 226,372 | 78% | 59,869 | 21% | 3,676 | 1% | 289,917 |
The Darkehmen/Darkiejmy (now Ozyorsk) and Gołdap counties, as transitional counties between Masuria and the Lithuania Minor region to the north, were inhabited by notable numbers of both ethnic Poles and Lithuanians.[32][33]
German Empire
After the Unification of Germany into the German Empire in 1871, the last lessons that made use of the Polish language were removed from schools in 1872. Masurians who expressed sympathy for Poland were deemed "national traitors" by German public opinion, especially after 1918 when the new Polish republic laid claims to, up to then German, areas inhabited by Polish speakers.[25] According to Stefan Berger, after 1871 the Masurians in the German Empire were seen in a view that while acknowledging their "objective" Polishness (in terms of culture and language) they felt "subjectively" German and thus should be tightly integrated into the German nation-state; Berger concludes that such arguments of German nationalists were aimed at integrating Masurian (and Silesian) territory firmly into the German Reich.[25]
During the period of the German Empire, the Germanisation policies in Masuria became more widespread; children using Polish in playgrounds and classrooms were widely punished by corporal punishment, and authorities tried to appoint Protestant pastors who would use only German instead of bilinguality and this resulted in protests of local parishioners.[25] According to Jerzy Mazurek, the native Polish-speaking population, like in other areas with Polish inhabitants, faced discrimination of Polish language activities from Germanised local administration. In this climate a first resistance defending the rights of rural population was organized, according to Jerzy Mazurek usually by some teachers engaged in publishing Polish language newspapers.[36]
Despite
Polish activists started to regard Masurians as "Polish brothers" after Wojciech Kętrzyński had published his pamphlet O Mazurach in 1872[39] and Polish activists engaged in active self-help against repressions by the German state[40] Kętrzyński fought against attempts to Germanise Masuria[41]
However, the attempts to create a Masurian Polish national consciousness, largely originating from nationalist circles of Province of Posen (Poznań) in the Prussian Partition of Poland, faced the resistance of the Masurians, who, despite having similar folk traditions and linguistics to Poles, regarded themselves as Prussians and later Germans.[42][43] and were loyal to the Hohenzollern dynasty, the Prussian and German state.[44][45][46][47] After World War I the editor of the Polish language Mazur described the Masurians as "not nationally conscious, on the contrary, the most loyal subjects of the Prussian king".[48] However, a minority of Masurians did exist who expressed Polish identity[40]
After 1871 there appeared resistance among the Masurians towards Germanisation efforts, the so-called Gromadki movement was formed which supported use of Polish language and came into conflict with German authorities; while most of its members viewed themselves as loyal to the Prussian state, a part of them joined the Pro-Polish faction of Masurians.
The German authorities in their efforts of Germanisation tried to claim the Masurian language separate from Polish by classifying it as a non-
Throughout
During
Names of those Masurs supporting the Polish side were published in German newspapers, and their photos presented in German shops; afterwards regular hunts were organised after them by German militias terrorizing the Polish minded population.[56][57][58] At least 3,000 Warmian and Masurian activists who were engaged for the Polish side decided to flee the region.[59] At the same time also local police officials were engaged in active surveillance of the Polish minority and attacks against Polish activists.[60] Before the plebiscite Poles started to flee the region to escape the German harassment and Germanisation policies.[61]
The results determined that 99.32% of the voters in Masuria proper chose to remain with the province of
Interbellum
Polish Masuria — the Działdowo county
The region of
According to the municipal administration of Rybno, after World War I Poles in Działdowo believed that they will be quickly joined with Poland,[69] they organised secret gatherings during which the issue of rejoining Polish state with help of Polish military was discussed.[69] According to the Rybno administration, most active Poles in that subregion included Jóżwiakowscy, Wojnowscy, Grzeszczowscy families working under the guidance of politician Leon Wojnowski who protested German attempts to remain Działdowo a part of Germany after the war; other local pro-Polish activists were Alfred Wellenger, Paczyński, Tadeusz Bogdański, Jóźwiakowski.[69][70][71]
The historian Andreas Kossert describes that the incorporation happened despite protests of the local populace, the municipal authorities and the German Government,[72] According to Kossert, 6,000 inhabitants of the region soon left the area.[73]
In 1920, the candidate of the German Party in Poland, Ernst Barczewski, was elected to the
During the interwar period many native inhabitants of Działdowo subregion left and migrated to Germany.
Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
Masuria was the only region of Germany directly affected by the battles of World War I. Damaged towns and villages were reconstructed with the aid of several twin towns from western Germany like
The interwar period was characterised by ongoing Germanisation policies, intensified especially under the Nazis.[79]
In the 1920s Masuria remained a heartland of conservatism with the
In 1938, the
According to German author Andreas Kossert, Polish parties were financed and aided by the Polish government in Warsaw, and remained splintergroups without any political influence,[89] e.g. in the 1932 elections the Polish Party received 147 votes in Masuria proper.[90] According to Wojciech Wrzesiński (1963), the Polish organisations in Masuria had decided to lower their activity in order to escape acts of terror performed against Polish minority activists and organisations by Nazi activists.[91] Jerzy Lanc, a teacher and Polish national who had moved to Masuria in 1931 to establish a Polish school in Piassutten (Piasutno), died in his home of carbon monoxide poisoning,[92] most likely murdered by local German nationalists.[93][94][95][96][97]
Due to severe persecution, from 1936 Polish organizations carried out their activities partly in conspiracy.
The Nazi anti-Polish activities further intensified in 1939.[99] Those Poles who were most active in politics were evicted from their own homes, while Polish newspapers and cultural houses were closed down in the region.[99] In an attempt to rig the results of an upcoming census and understate the number of Poles in the region, the Germans terrorized the Polish population and attacked Polish organizations.[100] In summer 1939 the German terror against the Poles even exceeded the terror from the period of the 1920 plebiscite.[101] Polish church masses were banned between June and July in Warmia and Masuria.[99] In August 1939, Germany introduced martial law in the region, which allowed for even more blatant persecution of Poles.[101]
In the final moments of August 1939 all remains of political and cultural life of Polish minority was eradicated by the Nazis, with imprisonment of Polish activists and liquidation of Polish institutions.[99] Seweryn Pieniężny, the chief editor of Gazeta Olsztyńska, who opposed Germanisation of Masuria, was interned, and other Polish activists in Masuria were also arrested.[99][102]
Directors of Polish schools and teachers were imprisoned, as was the staff of Polish pre-schools in the Masuria region.[99] They were often forced to destroy Polish signs, emblems and symbols of Polish institutions.[99]
World War II
With the start of the German
From now on conscripted Masurians had to serve without exception in the German army invading Poland, and Russia two years later on. In addition, the Einsatzgruppe V Nazi paramilitary death squads entered German-occupied Dziadowo to commit crimes against the Polish population.[107] Only some of the Polish activists from Działdowo County were caught by the Germans, as most managed to flee and hide under assumed names in the General Government (German-occupied central Poland).[108] Arrested Polish activists from the pre-war German part of Masuria were mostly deported to concentration camps, incl. Hohenbruch , Soldau, Stutthof, Sachsenhausen, Gusen and Ravensbrück.[109]
In 1939, the German occupiers established a
The Nazis believed that in future, the Masurians, as a separate non-German entity, would 'naturally' disappear in the end, while those who would cling to their "foreigness" as one Nazi report mentioned, would be deported.[114] Local Jews were considered by the Nazis to be subhuman and were to be exterminated. The Nazi authorities also executed Polish activists in Masuria and those who remained alive were sent to concentration camps.[115]
In Masuria, Germany also established and operated the
In 1943, "Związek Mazurski" was reactivated secretly by Masurian activists of the Polish Underground State in Warsaw and led by Karol Małłek.[118] Związek Mazurski opposed Nazi Germany and asked Polish authorities during the war to liquidate German large landowners after the victory over Nazi Germany to help in agricultural reform and settlement of Masurian population, Masurian iconoclasts opposed to Nazi Germany requested to remove German heritage sites "regardless of their cultural value".[119] Additionally a Masurian Institute was founded by Masurian activists in Radość near Warsaw in 1943.[120]
In the final stages of
However, per the decisions made at the earlier
Masuria after World War II
According to the Masurian Institute, the Masurian members of resistance against Nazi Germany who survived the war became active in 1945 in the region, working in Olsztyn in cooperation with new state authorities in administration, education and cultural affairs.[120] Historic Polish names for most of towns of Masuria were restored, but for some places new names were determined even if there were historic Polish names.
German author Andreas Kossert describes the post-war process of "national verification" as based on an ethnic racism which categorised the local populace according to their alleged ethnic background.[126] A Polish-sounding last name or a Polish-speaking ancestor was sufficient to be regarded as "autochthonous" Polish.[127] In October 1946, 37,736 persons were "verified" as Polish citizens while 30,804 remained "unverified". A center of such "unverified" Masurians was the district of
In 1950, 1,600 Masurians left the country and in 1951, 35,000 people from Masuria and Warmia managed to obtain a declaration of their German nationality by the embassies of the United States and Great Britain in Warsaw. Sixty-three percent of the Masurians in the district of Mrągowo received such a document.[130] In December 1956, Masurian pro-Polish activists signed a memorandum to the Communist Party leadership:
"The history of the people of Warmia and Masuria is full of tragedy and suffering. Injustice, hardship and pain often pressed on the shoulders of Warmians and Masurians... Dislike, injustice and violence surrounds us...They (Warmians and Masurians) demand respect for their differentness, grown in the course of seven centuries and for freedom to maintain their traditions".[131]
Soon after the political reforms of 1956, Masurians were given the opportunity to join their families in West Germany. The majority (over 100 thousand) gradually left, and after the improvement of Germano-Polish relations by the German Ostpolitik of the 1970s, 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to West Germany in between 1971 and 1988.[132] Today, between 5,000 and 6,000 Masurians still live in the area, about 50 percent of them members of the German minority in Poland; the remaining half is ethnic Polish.[47] As the Polish journalist Andrzej K. Wróblewski stated, the Polish post-war policy succeeded in what the Prussian state never managed: the creation of a German national consciousness among the Masurians.[132]
Most of the originally
Modern Masuria
In modern Masuria the native population has virtually disappeared.
Today, numerous summer music festivals take place in Masuria, including the largest reggae festival in Poland in Ostróda,[135] the largest country music festival in Poland in Mrągowo,[136] and one of Poland's largest hip hop music festivals in Giżycko and Ełk.
The Masurian
Landscape
Masuria and the Masurian Lake District are known in Polish as Kraina Tysiąca Jezior, meaning "land of a thousand lakes." These lakes were ground out of the land by glaciers during the Pleistocene ice age around 14,000 - 15,000 years ago, when ice covered northeastern Europe. From that period originates the horn of a reindeer found in the vicinity of Giżycko.[138] By 10,000 BC this ice started to melt. Great geological changes took place and even in the last 500 years the maps showing the lagoons and peninsulas on the Baltic Sea have greatly altered in appearance. More than in other parts of northern Poland, such as from Pomerania (from the River Oder to the River Vistula), this continuous stretch of lakes is popular among tourists. The terrain is rather hilly, with connecting lakes, rivers and streams. Forests account for about 30% of the area.[139][140] The northern part of Masuria is covered mostly by the broadleaved forest, while the southern part is dominated by pine and mixed forests.[141][142]
Two largest lakes of Poland, Śniardwy and Mamry, are located in Masuria.
Cities and towns
Notable people from Masuria
- Richard Altmann (1852–1900), pathologist
- Leszek Błażyński (1949–1992), boxer
- Kurt Blumenfeld (1884–1963), politician
- Abraham Calovius (1612–1686), Lutheran theologian
- Roman Czepe (born 1956), politician
- Lucas David (1503–1583), historian
- Ferdinand Gregorovius (1821–1891), historian
- Lothar Gall (born 1936) historian
- Gustaw Gizewiusz (1810–1848), Protestant pastor, supporter of Polish language teaching and resistance against Germanisation
- Georg Andreas Helwing (1666–1748), botanist
- Paul Hensel (1867–1944), politician
- Andreas Hillgruber (1925–1989), historian
- Wojciech Kętrzyński (1838–1918), activist and historian
- Hans Hellmut Kirst (1914–1989), author
- Georg Klebs (1857–1913), botanist
- Walter Kollo (1878–1940), composer
- Horst Kopkow (1910–1996), spy
- Udo Lattek (1935-2015), football coach
- Siegfried Lenz (1926-2014), author
- Wolf Lepenies (born 1941), political scientist
- Johannes von Leysen (1310–1388), founder and first mayor of Allenstein
- Albert Lieven (1906–1971), actor
- Krzysztof Celestyn Mrongovius (1764–1855), Protestant pastor and philosopher
- Celestyn Myślenta (1588–1653), Lutheran theologian and rector of the University of Königsberg
- Rodolphe Radau (1835–1911), astronomer
- Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1811–1883), anatomist
- Nicholas von Renys (1360-1411), knight
- Fritz Richard Schaudinn(1871–1906), zoologist
- Paweł Sobolewski (born 1979), footballer
- Helmuth Stieff(1901–1944), general
- Bethel Henry Strousberg (1823–1884), industrialist
- Arno Surminski (born 1934), writer
- Kurt Symanzik (1923–1983), physicist
- August Trunz (1875–1963), founder of the Prussica-Sammlung Trunz
- Ernst Wiechert (1887–1950), poet and writer
- Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928), physicist, Nobel Prize winner
See also
Notes
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- ^ a b Agris Dzenis (March 2, 2016). "The Old Prussians: the Lost Relatives of Latvians and Lithuanians". deep baltic. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
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- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Ostpreussen, page 28
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- ^ Ivanescu, Danut (19 September 2012). "WORLD, COME TO MY HOME!: 0335 POLAND (Warmia-Masuria) - Land of a thousand lakes". Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- ^ Górski, Karol (1949). Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. pp. XXXVII–XXXVIII.
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- ^ "What language did East Prussians speak? - Antimoon Forum". www.antimoon.com. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
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- ^ Erwin Kruk, Warmia i Mazury, Wrocław 2003, p. 62 (in Polish)
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- ^ Lesser, Gabriele. "Begegnungen am grünen Fluss". Die Tageszeitung (in German). Archived from the original on 2009-10-02. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
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- ^ Groniewska, pp. 6, 16, 30–32
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- ^ a b Jasiński, Grzegorz (2009). "Statystyki językowe powiatów mazurskich z pierwszej połowy XIX wieku (do 1862 roku)" (PDF). Komunikaty Mazursko-Warmińskie (in Polish). 1: 97–130 – via BazHum.
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- ^ Andreas Kossert: Masuren - Ostpreussens vergessener Süden, 2006, page 284: "Als in Soldau bekannt wurde, dass das Gebiet ohne Abstimmung an Polen fallen sollte, entluden sich Wut, Trauer und Bestürzung. Hilflos sah sich die Soldauer Bevölkerung ohne jede Mitsprache der Entscheidung des Siegers ausgesetzt. Alle Proteste blieben vergeblich. Kommunale Körperschaften verwahrten sich einhellig gegen die Abtretung, führende deutsche Politiker - allen voran Reichspräsident Friedrich Ebert - versuchten noch bis zur letzten Minute die alliierte Entscheidung rückgängig zu machen" (When it became known in Soldau that the area should fall to Poland without a vote, anger, sadness and dismay erupted. The Soldau population saw themselves helplessly and without a voice exposed to the decision of the winners. All protests were in vain. Local authorities unanimously opposed the cession, leading German politicians - led by President Friedrich Ebert - tried until the last minute to reverse the Allied decision.)
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- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 264
- ISBN 3-88680-808-4.
- ^ Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis. Piotr Eberhardt, page 166, 2003 M E Sharpe Inc
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 294
- ^ "Ostpreußen: Wahl zum Provinziallandtag 1925". www.gonschior.de. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- ^ ISBN 3-412-12000-6.
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, pp. 300, 306
- ^ a b Clark, p. 640
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 299
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 300
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 306
- ^ Bernd Martin, p. 55
- ISBN 3-570-55006-0.
- ISBN 978-1-55753-443-9.
- ^ Wrzesiński, Wojciech (1963). Ruch polski na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu w latach 1920-1939 (in Polish). Western Institute. p. 202.
- Gazeta Olsztynska (in Polish). 27 September 2010. Archived from the originalon 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
- ^ "Interia - Polska i świat: informacje, sport, gwiazdy". piasutno.w.interia.pl. Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- ^ J. Golec, S. Bojda, Słownik biograficzny ziemi cieszyńskiej, t. 1, Cieszyn 1993, s. 173: Wszystko wskazywało na to, że był to mord z premedytacją. K. Kajzer, Zginął jak bohater, "Kalendarz Cieszyński 2001", Cieszyn 2000, s. 249: Okoliczności świadczyły o morderstwie.
- ^ Archiwum Panstwowe w Kaliszu, "Jerzy Lanc (1901-1932)"[permanent dead link]
- ^ Sławomir Ambroziak, "Polska Szkola", Kurek Mazurski Archived 2012-03-19 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Jerzy Lance", Encyklopedia PWN, [1]
- ^ Cygański, Mirosław (1984). "Hitlerowskie prześladowania przywódców i aktywu Związków Polaków w Niemczech w latach 1939-1945". Przegląd Zachodni (in Polish) (4): 38.
- ^ ISSN 1641-9561.
- ^ Cygański, p. 39
- ^ a b Cygański, p. 40
- ^ Cygański, pp. 41–42
- ^ Z ałacznik do Uchwały Nr.XXVII Lokalny Program Rewitalizacji Miasta Działdowa. Ogólna charakterystyka, rys historyczny miasta Działdowa [2] Urząd Miejski Miasta Działdowa
- ^ Biuletyn Głównej Komisji Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce, Tomy 18-19, Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Sprawiedliwości, page 167, 1968
- ^ Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 by Tadeusz Piotrowski, page 83 2007, McFarland & Company, Inc.
- ^ Historia polityczna Polski 1935-1945 Paweł Piotr Wieczorkiewicz, page 164, Książka i Wiedza 2005
- ^ Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. p. 54.
- ^ Cygański, p. 44
- ^ Cygański, p. 43
- ^ a b Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. p. 227.
- ISBN 0-8078-2208-6.
- ^ Śląski, Jerzy (1986). Polska walcząca, 1939–1945, Tomy 5-6. Instytut Wydawniczy Pax. p. 165.
- ISBN 978-83-8229-411-8.
- ^ Germany Turns Eastwards: A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich by Michael Burleigh, page 209, 1988, Cambridge University Press
- ^ Swenson, Iwona (1998). Słownik geograficzno-krajoznawczy Polski (in Polish). Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. p. 440.
- ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1.
- ^ "Kazimierz Krajewski, Shock in the Reich, Rzeczpospolita Daily". Archived from the original on 2011-06-05. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
- ^ Literatura polska w latach II wojny światowej Jerzy Świe̢ch, Instytut Badań Literackich (Polska Akademia Nauk), page 42 Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,
- ^ Pałace i dwory powiatu kętrzyńskiego - wartości historyczne i kulturowe Archived 2004-07-18 at the Wayback Machine Muzeum im Wojciecha Kętrzyńsiego w Kętrzynie
- ^ a b O nas Archived 2018-12-24 at the Wayback Machine Ośrodek Badań Naukowych imienia Wojciecha Kętrzyńskiego w Olsztynie
- ^ Viktoria Vierheller (1970). Polen und die Deutschland-Frage 1939-1949 (in German). Vol. 23. Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik. p. 105. Sebastian Siebel-Achenbach. Niederschlesien 1942 bis 1949: alliierte Diplomatie und Nachkriegswirklichheit. Bergstadtverlag Wilhelm Gottlieb Korn. pp. 96–97.
- ISBN 9781847790323.
- ISBN 9780674926851.
- ISBN 9780880331746.
- ^ Andreas Kossert, Ostpreussen, Geschichte und Mythos p. 352; Kossert gives 35 % from Central Poland, 22.6 % from Eastern Poland, 10 % victims of Op. Vistula, 18.5 % Natives in 1950
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p.363, 364: "Ähnlich wie die NS-Volkslisten seit 1939 im Reichsgau Wartheland und in Danzig-Westpreussen die Germanisierbarkeit der dort lebenden Deutschen und kleiner polnischer Gruppen festlegte, indem sie sie nach einem biologischen Rassismus in vier Kategorien einteilten, nahm die polnische Provinzverwaltung nach 1945 eine Klassifizierung der Bewohner Masurens nach einem ethnischen Rassismus vor."
- ISBN 3-412-12000-6.
- ISBN 3-88680-808-4.
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 366
- ^ Kossert, Andreas: Masuren, p. 367
- ^ Andreas Kossert :”Masuren”, pp. 371, 372
- ^ ISBN 3-88680-808-4.
- ISBN 978-3-525-56382-3. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
- ^ "Masurian". Archived from the original on 2018-08-14. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
- ^ "Ostróda - Ostróda Reggae Festival". eMazury.com (in Polish). Retrieved 4 November 2019.
- ^ "Piknik Country w Mrągowie - to już 35 lat". Moje Mazury (in Polish). Retrieved 4 November 2019.
- ^ "Hunt for CIA "black site" in Poland". BBC. 28 December 2006.
- ^ (in Polish) Krajobraz kulturowy powiatu gołdapskiego, at www.dkgoldap.fr.pl Archived 2010-06-01 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ (in Polish) Mazury, at www.strefamazury.pl Archived 2010-07-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ (in Polish) Charakterystyka Pojezierza Mazurskiego, at www.bryk.pl
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.856.8111.
- ^ "Masuria - Krutyn - Boat and canoeing trips on the Krutynia River". www.e-masuria.com. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
References
- (in Polish) Mazury Entry on the region in Polish PWN Encyclopedia.
- Martin, Bernd (1998). Masuren, Mythos und Geschichte (in German). Karlsruhe: Ewangelische Akademie Baden. ISBN 3-87210-122-6. Archived from the originalon 2006-06-28.
- Kruk, Erwin (2003). Warmia i Mazury (in Polish). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-028-1.
- Kossert, Andreas (2006). Masuren. Ostpreußens vergessener Süden (in German). Pantheon. ISBN 3-570-55006-0.
- Kossert, Andreas (2005). Ostpreussen, Geschichte und Mythos (in German). Siedler. ISBN 3-88680-808-4.
- Kossert, Andreas (2004). Mazury, Zapomniane południe Prus Wschodnich (in Polish). ISBN 83-7383-067-7.
- ISBN 0-674-02385-4.