Meat
Meat is animal tissue, often
Meat is mainly composed of water,
The consumption of meat, especially red and processed meat, causes health effects including increased risks of cancer, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. Meat production is a major contributor to
Meat is important to economies and cultures around the world. Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarians) for reasons such as ethics, environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules.
Etymology
The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal, other edible organs such as liver and kidney.[1] The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, other seafood, insects, poultry, or other animals.[2][3]
English has specialized terms for the meat of particular animals, deriving from the
Meat of... | ...is called:[4] | Etymology |
---|---|---|
Pigs | Pork | Norman French porc (pig) |
Cattle | Beef | Norman French boeuf (cattle) |
Sheep | Mutton | Norman French mouton (sheep) |
Calves | Veal | Norman French veau (calf) |
Domesticated birds | Poultry | Norman French poule (domestic fowl) |
Goats | Chevon | Old French chèvre (goat) |
Deer | Venison | Old French venesoun (meat of large game) |
History
Domestication
Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer. Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic, enabling the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals to improve meat production.[1]
Animal | Centre of origin | Purpose | Date/years ago |
---|---|---|---|
cow |
Near East, South Asia | Food | 11,000–10,000[5] |
Chicken | East Asia | Cockfighting |
7,000[6] |
Horse | Central Asia | Draft, riding | 5,500[7] |
Intensive animal farming
In the postwar period, governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution.[8] In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs.[9] Intensive animal farming became globalized in the later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world.[9] In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%.[9]
Selective breeding
Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding, allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers.[10] For instance, in the wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery.[10] Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available.[10]
Meat production continues to be shaped by the demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts.[10] Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope, zebra, water buffalo and camel,[10] as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich.[10] Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard.[11]
-
A shoulder of lamb
-
AHerefordbull, a breed of beef cattle
-
Dog meat on sale, South Korea
-
Supermarket meat, North America
Animal growth and development
Several factors affect the growth and development of meat.
Genetics
Trait | Heritability[12] |
---|---|
Reproductive efficiency | 2–10% |
Meat quality | 15–30% |
Growth | 20–40% |
Muscle/fat ratio | 40–60% |
Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding.[12] One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.[12] Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.[12]
Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome.[12] To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped.[12] Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered.[12] Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits is anticipated.[12]
Environment
Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, retard animal development.[13]
Animal nutrition
The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition.[14]
The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.[14]
In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial
Animal welfare
Practices such as confinement in
Human intervention
Meat producers may seek to improve the
Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals.[20] This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh.[21] Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones.[20] Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy.[22]
Composition
Biochemical
The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved.[23] Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.[24]
Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.[25] Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).[25] There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins.[25] Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis, the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP).[25] The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin,[25] form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue (collagen and elastin).[25] Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids),[26] or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol.[26]
Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest,[27] while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as the brief flight of the chicken.[27] The meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.[28]
-
"Red" meat:
beef steak -
"White" meat:
chicken breast (flight muscle)
Nutritional
The fat content of meat varies widely with the
Source | Energy: kJ (kcal) | Protein | Carbs | Fat |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chicken breast[33] | 490 (117) | 25 g | 0 g | 2 g |
Lamb mince[34] | 1,330 (319) | 19 g | 0 g | 26 g |
Beef mince[35] | 1,200 (287) | 19 g | 0 g | 22 g |
Dog[36] | 1,100 (270) | 20 g | 0 g | 22 g |
Horse[37] | 610 (146) | 23 g | 0 g | 5 g |
Pork loin[38] | 1,010 (242) | 14 g | 0 g | 30 g |
Rabbit[39] | 900 (215) | 32 g | 0 g | 9 g |
Production
-
World production of meat, main items[40]
-
World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)[40]
Animals | Number Killed |
---|---|
Chickens | 61,171,973,510
|
Ducks | 2,887,594,480
|
Pigs | 1,451,856,889
|
Rabbits | 1,171,578,000
|
Geese | 687,147,000
|
Turkeys | 618,086,890
|
Sheep | 536,742,256
|
Goats | 438,320,370
|
Cattle | 298,799,160
|
Rodents | 70,371,000
|
Other birds | 59,656,000
|
Buffalo | 25,798,819
|
Horses | 4,863,367
|
Donkeys, mules | 3,478,300
|
Camelids | 3,298,266
|
Transport
Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse.[43] Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route.[43] Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.[43] In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.[43]
Slaughter
Animals are usually slaughtered by being first
Dressing and cutting
After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat,
Conditioning
Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.[45] During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat.[46]
As the muscle pigment
-
A slaughterhouse, Finland
-
Rungis International Market, France
Additives
When meat is industrially processed,
Additive | Examples | Function | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Salt | n/a | Imparts flavor, inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps emulsifying finely processed products, such as sausages. |
The most common additive. Ready-to-eat meat products often contain 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt. |
Nitrite | n/a | Curing meat, to stabilize color and flavor, and inhibit growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum . |
The use of nitrite's precursor parma ham .
|
Alkaline polyphosphates | Sodium tripolyphosphate |
Increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth. | |
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) |
n/a | Stabilize the color of cured meat. | |
Sweeteners |
Sugar, corn syrup | Impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the Maillard reaction. | |
Seasonings | Spices, herbs, essential oils | Impart or modify flavor. | |
Flavorings | Monosodium glutamate | Strengthen existing flavors. | |
Tenderizers |
Proteolytic enzymes , acids |
Break down collagen to make the meat more palatable for consumption. | |
Antimicrobials | lactic, citric and acetic acid, calcium sulfate, cetylpyridinium chloride, lactoferrin, bacteriocins such as nisin. | Limit growth of meat spoilage bacteria | |
Antioxidants | Limit lipid oxidation , which would create an undesirable "off flavor". |
Used in precooked meat products. | |
Acidifiers | Lactic acid, citric acid | Impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein denaturation and moisture release in dried meat. | They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard salami or prosciutto. |
Consumption
Historical
A
In the nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in the meat industry than in any other British business" except finance.[52] The US was a meat importing country by 1926.[52]
Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs.[52]
Trends
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009.[55] FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half the increase.[56]
Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of the non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted.[57]
The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.
Methods of preparation
Meat can be cooked in many ways, including
-
Spit-roastinga lamb and a suckling pig
-
Geese being smoked in a smokehouse
-
Stewingmutton with vegetables
-
Frying pork sausages in a pan
-
Raw beef: steak tartare
-
Duck liver pâté
Health effects
Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks.[78][79] The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.[80]
Contamination
Toxic compounds including
Cancer
The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[78][83] IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[84]
A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[90]
Cooking muscle meat creates
Bacterial contamination
Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus, with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.[79] A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus".[93]
Complete cooking and the careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat.[94]
Diabetes
Consumption of 100 g/day of red meat and 50 g/day of processed meat is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.[95]
Diabetes UK advises people to limit their intake of red and processed meat.[96][97]
Infectious diseases
Meat production and trade substantially increase risks for infectious diseases (zoonosis), including of pandemics, whether though contact with wild and farmed animals, or via husbandry's environmental impact.[98][99] For example, avian influenza from poultry meat production is a threat to human health.[100] Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to antimicrobial resistance[101][102] – which contributes to millions of deaths[103] – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.[104][105][106]
Changes in consumer behavior
In response to changing
Heart disease
Except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively.[108][109]
Environmental impact
A multitude of serious negative environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions,
The livestock sector may be the largest source of
Environmental effects vary among livestock production systems.[120] Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.[121][122] Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.[123]
Land use
Meat production is by far the biggest user of land, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.[128] Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area (265 million hectares or 654 million acres) are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting 158 million hectares (391 million acres) of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock.[129] Roughly 75% of deforested land around the globe is used for livestock pasture.[130] Deforestation from practices like slash-and-burn releases CO2 and removes the carbon sink of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change.[131] Land use is a major pressure on pressure on fertile soils which is important for global food security.[132]
Climate change
The rising global consumption of carbon-intensive meat products has "exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture," according to some top scientists.[133][134] Meat production is responsible for some 35% of global emissions of greenhouse gases, and 60% of the greenhouse gases attributable to food production.[135]
Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups, driven by meat consumption.[136]
According to the Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production report produced by United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.[137] A 2019 report in The Lancet recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.[138] Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in Nature.[139] The 2019 special report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.[140]
Biodiversity loss
Meat consumption is a primary contributor to the
Meat consumption is predicted to rise as the human population increases and becomes more affluent; this in turn would increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.[148]
Reducing environmental impact
The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced on the farm by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.[149][150] Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.[151]
Reducing meat consumption
The IPCC and others have stated that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient
Social attitudes to meat-eating
Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions.[160]
Ethical issues
Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the
The founders of
Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the
Religious traditions
Among the Indian religions,
Psychology
Research in
Gender
Unlike most other foods, meat is not perceived as gender-neutral: it is associated with men and masculinity. Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary barbecues, indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food.[162] This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male gender roles, in view of what Jack Goody calls a "male familiarity with killing", or as Claude Lévi-Strauss suggests, that roasting is more violent than boiling.[162] By and large, at least in modern societies, men tend to consume more meat than women, and men often prefer red meat whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish.[162]
See also
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External links
- American Meat Science Association website
- IARC Monographs Q&A Archived October 5, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- IARC Monographs Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat. Archived November 23, 2018, at the Wayback Machine