Mechanotransduction
In
In this process, a mechanically gated ion channel makes it possible for sound, pressure, or movement to cause a change in the excitability of specialized sensory cells and
Single-molecule biomechanics studies of proteins and DNA, and mechanochemical coupling in
Ear
Air pressure changes in the ear canal cause the vibrations of the
Skeletal muscle
When a deformation is imposed on a muscle, changes in cellular and molecular conformations link the mechanical forces with biochemical signals, and the close integration of mechanical signals with electrical, metabolic, and hormonal signaling may disguise the aspect of the response that is specific to the mechanical forces.[19]
Cartilage
One of the main mechanical functions of articular
Chondrocytes sense and convert the mechanical signals they receive into biochemical signals, which subsequently direct and mediate both
The balance that is struck between
Although studies have shown that, like most biological tissues, cartilage is capable of mechanotransduction, the precise mechanisms by which this is done remain unknown. However, there exist a few hypotheses which begin with the identification of
In order for mechanical signals to be sensed, there need to be mechanoreceptors on the surface of chondrocytes. Candidates for chondrocyte mechanoreceptors include
receptors (of which there exist several types on chondrocytes).Using the integrin-linked mechanotransduction pathway as an example (being one of the better studied pathways), it has been shown to mediate chondrocyte adhesion to cartilage surfaces,[29] mediate survival signaling[30] and regulate matrix production and degradation.[31]
Integrin receptors have an extracellular domain that binds to the ECM proteins (collagen,
In addition to binding to ECM ligands, integrins are also receptive to
Integrin signaling is just one example of multiple pathways that are activated when cartilage is loaded. Some intracellular processes that have been observed to occur within these pathways include phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, and SAPK/ERK kinase-1 (SEK-1) of the JNK pathway[33] as well as changes in cAMP levels, actin re-organization and changes in the expression of genes which regulate cartilage ECM content.[34]
More recent studies have hypothesized that chondrocyte primary cilium act as a mechanoreceptor for the cell, transducing forces from the extracellular matrix into the cell. Each chondrocyte has one cilium and it is hypothesized to transmit mechanical signals by way of bending in response to ECM loading. Integrins have been identified on the upper shaft of the cilium, acting as anchors to the collagen matrix around it.[35] Recent studies published by Wann et al. in FASEB Journal have demonstrated for the first time that primary cilia are required for chondrocyte mechanotransduction. Chondrocytes derived from IFT88 mutant mice did not express primary cilia and did not show the characteristic mechanosensitive up regulation of proteoglycan synthesis seen in wild type cells[36]
It is important to examine the mechanotransduction pathways in chondrocytes since mechanical loading conditions which represent an excessive or injurious response upregulates synthetic activity and increases catabolic signalling cascades involving mediators such as NO and MMPs. In addition, studies by Chowdhury TT and Agarwal S have shown that mechanical loading which represents physiological loading conditions will block the production of catabolic mediators (iNOS, COX-2, NO, PGE2) induced by inflammatory cytokines (IL-1) and restore anabolic activities. Thus an improved understanding of the interplay of biomechanics and cell signalling will help to develop therapeutic methods for blocking catabolic components of the mechanotransduction pathway. A better understanding of the optimal levels of in vivo mechanical forces are therefore necessary for maintaining the health and viability of cartilage, preventative techniques may be devised for the prevention of cartilage degradation and disease.[citation needed]
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Further reading
- Khan, K M; Scott, A (2009). "Mechanotherapy: How physical therapists' prescription of exercise promotes tissue repair". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 43 (4): 247–52. PMID 19244270.
- Mammano, F.; Nobili, R (1993). "Biophysics of the cochlea: Linear approximation". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 93 (6): 3320–32. PMID 8326060.
- v. Békésy, Georg (1952). "DC Resting Potentials Inside the Cochlear Partition". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 24 (1): 72–76. .
- 1. Kandel, E.R., Schwartz, J.H., Jessell, T.M., Principles of Neural Science. New York: McGraw-Hill ed, ed. 4th. 2000.
- Hudspeth, A. J.; Choe, Y.; Mehta, A. D.; Martin, P. (2000). "Putting ion channels to work: Mechanoelectrical transduction, adaptation, and amplification by hair cells". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (22): 11765–72. PMID 11050207.
- Hudspeth, A. J. (1989). "How the ear's works work". Nature. 341 (6241): 397–404. S2CID 33117543.
External links
- www.du.edu/~kinnamon/3640/hearing/hearing.html
- Cellular+Mechanotransduction at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)