Mass media in Egypt

The written press is very diverse in Egypt, with over 600 newspapers, journals, and magazines. However these are owned mostly or in some way by the government, the opposition or other political parties.

In 2009 an Egyptian court revoked the publishing license for Ibdaa ("creativity"), a small-circulation literary magazine, for publishing a "blasphemous" poem by Hilmi Salem called "On the balcony of Leila Murad" in which God is likened to an Egyptian peasant who farms and milks cows. It came to the attention of authorities at Al-Azhar University, described as "the government’s highest authority on religion", who then petitioned the courts, who ruled that "Freedom of the press ... should be used responsibly and not touch on the basic foundations of Egyptian society, and family, religion and morals".^[13] Over the past two decades, Al-Azhar University censored more than 196 texts.^[14]

In the late 1800s/early 1900s Egypt had journals in both Arabic and French.^[15] In much of the 1800s Alexandria served as the centre of Egyptian journalism.^[16] Circa the mid-to-late 1800s many famous literary journals were established in Alexandria, but moved to Cairo by the 1890s.^[17] By the late 1800s the makeup of Alexandria-based publications increasingly focused on culture while publications focused on political matters moved to Cairo.^[16] During that decade the city had twelve newspapers, and there were three new general culture journals that decade. By the 1890s the number of newspapers had increased to 39, and 19 new general cultural journals appeared that decade.^[15] In 1899 Al-Ahram moved to Cairo,^[17] and by circa 1901 publications in Cairo made up 65% of the total while ones based in Alexandria had declined to 28%.^[16]

Women's Press

The period before the creation of Egyptian political parties saw the creation of many women's periodicals and press, from the year 1892, with the creation of the first women's journal al-Fatah by Hind Nawfal, originally published in Alexandria, until through the first world war, an average of 1 new journal was being created each year.^[18][19] For Nawal, this was an opportunity to write for and about women and to defend their right's, express her views and discuss their duties. Editions of the journal were published continually for two years, after which she stopped publications.^[20]

Examples of other significant periodicals include Muslim women's journal Tarqiyat al-Mar’a which was first published in 1908, which fought for women's rights which had already been granted by Islam and argued against the mixing of genders and for veiling.^[21][22] In the same year, Malaka Sa-d first published al-jins al-lateef, a Coptic journal dedicated to the issues Coptic women faced, it published a diverse set of female editors.^[23]

Although originally influenced by western European and Turkish women's press, these journals evolved throughout the years. Women did not feature on the cover until the 1920s, with drawings previously being preferred due to conventions on veiling. During this time, men started writing women's periodicals too as it became an accepted literary genre, these often came in a tabloid form.^[20]

Television

There are two state broadcasters and an increasing number of private broadcasters. Figures from the

Egyptian radio broadcasting (as in both FM and AM bands) began to serve in Egypt in the 1920s as locally owned radios. They began airing radio as The Egyptian State Radio on the 31 May 1934 in an agreement with the Marconi Company. In 1947 the contract with the Marconi Company was canceled and radio broadcasting was nationalized by the Egyptian government.

By the early 1990s, Egypt had only four FM stations, but the number increased to six by the end of the decade. In 2000 stations moving from the AM band and the introduction of private stations raised the number to ten stations as of 2006.

Radio as a Political Tool

Radio has also historically been utilized as a political tool in Egypt beginning under the rule of President Gamal Abdel Nasser.(10) Nasser became president of Egypt in 1954 and served until his death in 1970.(10) When Nasser came to power he realized that radio could be utilized as a powerful political tool for two reasons. First, the illiteracy rate in Egypt has been traditionally high.(11) Using radio to spread political ideas, therefore, allowed a greater number of the population to hear his political ideas. Many Egyptians, both literate and illiterate, also enjoyed listening to radio, so this provided an alternative means to propagate his ideologies other than print media.(11) Second, he had the power to expand the radio to all parts of Egypt allowing for the dissemination of his political messages throughout Egypt.(11)
The main program Nasser utilized to voice his politics was the Voice of the Arabs.(10) This program was started on July 4, 1953 and was directed by Ahmed Said.(10) Said was also the chief announcer of the program and had a close relationship with Nasser and his administration. Nasser's political goals for Egypt were seen as strongly revolutionary and adopted positions such as anti-colonialist, anti-imperialist, and anti-Zionist.(10) These positions were highly supported and strongly voiced on the Voice of the Arabs in the mid- to late 1950s.(10) This revolutionary propaganda influenced two significant events in Arab countries in the 1950s.
The first was when the Voice of the Arabs began a series of broadcasts in 1955 that called for Jordanian citizens to campaign against their countries involvement in Baghdad Pact and against their governments close involvement with Britain.(10) This resulted in the dismissal of General John Bagot Glubb, a veteran soldier and Arabist who had been in Jordan over 25 years, as a commander of Jordanian forces.(10) Although the broadcasts cannot be proven fully as the reason for his dismissal, it is strongly believed that the demonstrations that resulted from the broadcasts influenced the Jordanian presidents decision.(10)
The second was broadcasts from 1955 to 1958; which promoted revolution in

Internet

The government has actively encouraged internet usage, quadrupling over the last few years with around 17 million regular users in 2010, around 21 percent of the population.

Freedom of expression[26] and belief tend to be suppressed by the Egyptian media sector to favor pro-government ideology since the coup in 2013. One of the former editors of a major publication Al-Ahram was detained in 2021 for false news of President Sisi to resign.

Regulation

The first Arabic-language newspaper in Egypt was al-Tanbih, published by the French, and headquartered in Alexandria, around the start of the 1800s.^[30] The first official Egyptian newspaper, in Arabic and based in Cairo, was Jurnāl al-Khidīw and appeared over ten years later.^[30] The bilingual Ottoman Turkish and Arabic paper Vekayi’-i mısriyye (al-Waqāʾiʿ al-miṣriyya), was first printed on 3 December 1828.^[31]

• Abū al-Nuwās (Alexandria) - Established in 1895 by Najib Gharghur^[15]
• al-ʻĀm al-Jadīd (Alexandria) - Established in 1895 by Najib Gharghur^[15]
• al-ʻAṣr al-Jadīd (Alexandria) - Established in 1880, its editors were 'Abd Allah al-Nadim and Salim ʻAbbas al-Shalafun, the latter being from Syria. It was one of two journals that Elisabeth Kendall, author of "Between Politics and Literature: Journals in Alexandria and Istanbul at the End of the Nineteenth Century," described as a replacement for al-Maḥrūsa and Mișr. Officially it was edited by Salim al-Naqqash, but he was not the real editor.^[32]
• al-Āmāl (Alexandria) - Established in 1899 by Najib Gharghur^[15]
• al-Babaghāʻ (Alexandria) - A satirical publication established by Najib Ghargur, it began in 1887 and had a run of five issues. Gharghur's influences came from Il Paparillo, a satirical publication published in Bologna, Italy.^[16]
• al-Burhān - It was established by Muhammad Farid and Hamza Fath Allah. It was based in Alexandria but moved to Cairo in 1881.^[17]
• al-Falāh - Established in 1886, it was based in Cairo and established by Salim al-Hamawi. He moved to Cairo to establish the paper even though he hitherto was active in Alexandria.^[17]
• Al Fatat (Alexandria)^[15]
• al-Ḥaqīqa - (Alexandria) Co-founded by Najib Ghargur and Faraj Mizrahi in 1888, and with writers originating from Egypt and Syria described as "famous" by Kendall, it covered literary affairs and other topics; Kendall stated that the topics covered were "broad".^[16] Jurj Marza, from Lebanon, acquired the publication from Gharghur in 1889, and the publication folded later.^[16]
• al-Ibtisam (Alexandria), established in 1894, it focused on culture, was a general journal, and was co-founded by Rufa'il Mishawa and Najib Gharghur^[15]
• al-Iskarandiyya (Alexandria), established in 1878 by Salim al-Hamawi^[32]
• al-Ittiḥad al-Miṣrī (Alexandria), established by Rufa'il Mashaqa in 1881, focused on culture.^[15] Najib Gharghur began editing it in 1889,^[16] and continued until about 1909^[15]
• 'Urabi Revolt.^[32]
• al-Manāra (Alexandria), established in 1888 by Salim al-Khuri Bishara, with Najib Ghargur as the editor. The publication hired an artist from Bologna, Italy to make illustrations. According to Kendall, it had influences from Italian culture.^[16]
• Ar-Rawi (Alexandria). Established in 1888 by Khalil Ziniyya. With writers including Najib Gharghur and Najib al-Haddad, the monthly publication included literature, humorous content, intellectual content, and later political content; the last category prompted its shutdown in 1890.^[16] Ziniyya had considered re-establishing it but Ibrahim al-Yaziji from Syria suggested to Ziniyya that it remain out of operation.^[33] According to Kendall, it was one of two publications that, despite not lasting for a long time, had "greater literary significance".^[16]
• al-Tankīt wa-l-Tabkīt a.k.a. al-Ṭāʼif - Established in 1881 by al-Nadim, it was a weekly publication originally called al-Tankīt wa-l-Tabkīt,^[32] but changing to its latter name around the ninth issue. It was originally based in Alexandria.^[34] Kendall cited the copious letters sent to al-Nadim asking him to keep publishing the newspaper, after al-Nadim announced that he planned to end it, as proof of it having significant popularity.^[35] al-Nadim used vernacular Egyptian Arabic to write episodes and sketches in the publication and initially employed simple language as a way of spreading ideas to ordinary citizens,^[32] although the newspaper initially switched to classical Arabic. Around the 'Urabi Revolt in 1882 the publication headquarters shifted to Cairo, and Kendall wrote that it "became the official organ" of the revolt.^[34]
• al-Surūr (Alexandria) - Established by Niqula ʻAbd al-Masih in 1892 and running until about 1902, it focused on culture. Jurj Marza from Lebanon and Antun Nawfal from Syria edited it. Kendall credited the relative longevity to its "innocuous and eclectic" articles.^[16]
• al-Tijāra (Alexandria) - Established in 1879. In Kendall's words, Jurji Zaydan, the founder of al-Hilāl, described it as one of two "pillars in the evolution of Egyptian journalism".^[32] Kendall described it as one of two newspapers that, citing Zaydan, "stirred up Alexandrian intellectuals".^[32]
• Al Ustadh - Established by al-Nadim, it was published from 1892 to 1893 and was based in Cairo. The "episodes" published by al-Nadim in his previous publications also turned up in this one, and Kendall stated that there they retained their "popularity".^[34]
• Anis Al-Jalis (Alexandria) - Established by Alexandra de Avirieno in 1898, it focused on women and had poet brothers Najib and Amin al-Haddad writing for it.^[15]
• Bulletin de l'Institut égyptien^[36]
• Ḥadīqat al-Adab (Alexandria) was established in 1888,^[16] by Najib Ghargur, who did not obtain an official license to create the work. It included versions of European fiction repurposed for an Arabic-speaking audience as well as some of Gharghur's original works. Kendall stated that it was popular and that it was the "most specialized literary journal" of all time, up to 2002, in Egypt. The lack of the license meant the Egyptian authorities closed the publication. Kendall stated that she was unsure of the time the journal closed but she guessed it was 1889.^[15] According to Kendall, it was one of two publications that, despite not lasting for a long time, had "greater literary significance".^[16]
• Il progresso, an Italian newspaper established in the city of Alexandria in 1858 and 1859.^[30]
• Isis. Revue française d'Égypte^[36]
• L'Echo des Pyramides - (Alexandria) Published around 1827, centred on education^[30]
• Hoda Sharawy, beginning in 1925 and ending in 1940.^[37]
• L'Égypte contemporaine^[36]
• La Décade égyptienne^[36]
• La Semaine égyptienne Organe du Touring club^[36]
• Le Courier de l'Égypte (spelled with one or two rs)^[36]
• Le Phare du Bosphore - Originally in Turkey but later moving to Egypt,^[30] it was established in 1870 and edited by Kiriakopoulos.^[30] It ended in 1890.^[30]
• Le Phœnix : revue de la renaissance orientale^[36]
• Lisān al-ʻArab - Established in 1894 by poet brothers Najib and Amin al-Haddad, it included their works and anti-Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II content. Kendall stated that the writing was not as strong as that of 'Abd Allah al-Nadim.^[15] It ended in 1899 with Najib's death.^[15]
• Miscellanea Ægyptica (Alexandria) - Established in 1843, published by the Association littéraire d'Egypte, the first cultural-centred publication in Egypt^[30]
• Mișr - Established in 1877, its editors were Adib Ishaq and Salim al-Naqqash, from Syria. Initially the headquarters were in Cairo; in 1879 they were transferred to Alexandria,^[32] but went back to Cairo in 1881.^[17] In Kendall's words, Zaydan described it as one of two "pillars in the evolution of Egyptian journalism".^[32] Kendall described it as one of two newspapers that, citing Zaydan, "stirred up Alexandrian intellectuals".^[32]
• Mișr al-Fatā (content in Arabic and French), established in 1879 by the Young Egypt Society in Alexandria^[32]
• Revue d'Égypte^[36]