Medieval European magic
Part of a series on |
Magic |
---|
During the Middle Ages, magic took on many forms. Instead of being able to identify one type of magic user, there were many who practiced several types of magic in these times, including monks, priests, physicians, surgeons, midwives, folk healers, and diviners.[1] The practice of magic often consisted of using medicinal herbs for healing purposes. Classical medicine entailed magical elements. They would use charms or potions in hopes of driving out a sickness.[2] People had strongly differing opinions as to what magic was,[3] and because of this, it is important to understand all aspects of magic at this time.
History
Magic practices such as divination, interpretation of omens, sorcery, and use of charms had been specifically forbidden in Mosaic Law[4] and condemned in Biblical histories of the kings.[5] Many of these practices were spoken against in the New Testament as well.[6][7] The model of the magician in Christian thought was provided by Simon Magus, (Simon the Magician), a figure who opposed Saint Peter in both the Acts of the Apostles and the apocryphal yet influential Acts of Peter.[8]
The historian Michael D. Bailey stated that in medieval Europe, magic was a "relatively broad and encompassing category".[9] Christian theologians believed that there were multiple different forms of magic, the majority of which were types of divination, for instance, Isidore of Seville produced a catalogue of things he regarded as magic in which he listed divination by the four elements i.e. geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy, as well as by observation of natural phenomena e.g. the flight of birds and astrology. He also mentioned enchantment and ligatures (the medical use of magical objects bound to the patient) as being magical.[10] Medieval Europe also saw magic come to be associated with the Old Testament figure of Solomon; various grimoires, or books outlining magical practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon, most notably the Key of Solomon.[11]
In early medieval Europe, magia was a term of condemnation.[12] In medieval Europe, Christians often suspected Muslims and Jews of engaging in magical practices;[13] in certain cases, these perceived magical rites—including the alleged Jewish sacrifice of Christian children—resulted in Christians massacring these religious minorities.[14] Christian groups often also accused other, rival Christian groups such as the Hussites—which they regarded as heretical—of engaging in magical activities.[8][15] Medieval Europe also saw the term maleficium applied to forms of magic that were conducted with the intention of causing harm.[9] The later Middle Ages saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European languages: sorcière in French, Hexe in German, strega in Italian, and bruja in Spanish.[16] The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlier Old English term wicce.[16]
Magic is a major component and supporting contribution to the belief and practice of spiritual, and in many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages. Emanating from many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic, one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of nefarious beings who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from numerous acts or rituals that have been performed throughout antiquity, and due to their exoticism from the commoner's perspective, the rituals invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.[17][18]
In the Medieval Jewish view, the separation of the mystical and magical elements of Kabbalah, dividing it into speculative theological Kabbalah (Kabbalah Iyyunit) with its meditative traditions, and theurgic practical Kabbalah (Kabbalah Ma'asit), had occurred by the beginning of the 14th century.[19]
Despite the many negative connotations which surround the term magic, there exist many elements that are seen in a divine or holy light.[20] The divine right of kings in England was thought to be able to give them "sacred magic" power to heal thousands of their subjects from sicknesses.[21]
Diversified instruments or rituals used in medieval magic include, but are not limited to: various amulets, talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, and
in 1456, the seven
Forms
Astrology
Astrology in its rudimentary form was categorized under spirituality. However, many of the subsections under medieval magic relied on the contextual information within astrology in order to be effective. People who practiced magic often relied on the influence of astrological power for their practices.[31] The presence of astrology in the Middle Ages is recorded on the walls of the San Miniato al Monte basilica in Florence, Italy. The art on the walls of the basilica depict all of the zodiac symbols. Each of the zodiac during this era were connected with a specific part of the human body that it was deeply connected to.[32] People who practice magic during this period could take the zodiac into consideration of the practices more precisely if it were directly related to body parts.
Divination
Divination in the Middle Ages can be used as a broad term to define practices used to understand or foresee one's fate and to connect with the entities that brought about said fate. There were multiple ways by which people could attempt divination. Tarot cards were present during the Middle Ages, but it is not clear how the cards were used and interpreted during this period. However, the general placement of the cards would have affected the interpretation of the message.[33]
Charms
In addition to the Christian base of charms, tangible items were incorporated into the magical practice. Such items included amulets, talismans, gemstones, as well as smaller items that were used to create the amulets. These items were convenient because they could be kept on one's person at all times, and they served many purposes. They could protect the user from multiple forms of danger, bring the user good fortune, or they could combine multiple blessings and protections depending on how the charm user interacted with them.[34]
Medical magic
Medical care in the Middle Ages was extremely broad and took many different forms. Practices like therapy revolved around plants, animals, and minerals at this time.
Sorcery
Not only was it difficult to make the distinction between the magical and religious, but what was even more challenging was to distinguish between helpful (white) magic from harmful (black) magic. Medical magic and protective magic were regarded as helpful, and called ‘white’, while
Opposition
Early opposition
Views on magic changed throughout the years and as time went on more controls were placed on magic, these controls varied from place to place and also depended on social status.
Witches still go to cross-roads and to heathen burials with their delusive magic and call to the devil; and he comes to them in the likeness of the man that is buried there, as if he arises from death.[41]
Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395) had said that demons had children with women called cambions, which added to the children they had between them, contributed to increase the number of demons. However, the first popular account of such a union and offspring does not occur in Western literature until around 1136, when Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the story of Merlin in his pseudohistorical account of British history, Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), in which he reported that Merlin's father was an incubus.[42]
Anne Lawrence-Mathers writes that at that time "... views on demons and spirits were still relatively flexible. There was still a possibility that the
It was only beginning in the 1150s that the Church turned its attention to defining the possible roles of spirits and demons, especially with respect to their sexuality and in connection with the various forms of magic which were then believed to exist.[42] Christian demonologists eventually came to agree that sexual relationships between demons and humans happen, but they disagreed on why and how.[42] A common point of view is that demons induce men and women to the sin of lust, and adultery is often considered as an associated sin.
Legal prohibitions
This section includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (September 2023) |
Legislation against magic could be one of two types, either by
The persecution of magic can be seen in law codes dating back to the 6th century, where the Germanic code of
Charlemagne's objection to magic carried over into later years, as many rulers built on his early prohibitions. King Roger II of Sicily punished the use of poisons by death, whether natural or magical. Additionally, he proclaimed that ‘love magic’ be punished regardless of if anyone was hurt or not. However, secular rulers were still more concerned with the actual damage of the magic rather than the means of its infliction.
Instructions issued in 800 at a synod in Freising provide general outlines for ecclesiastical hearings. The document states that those accused of some type of sorcery were to be examined by the archpriest of the diocese in hopes of prompting a confession. Torture was used if necessary, and the accused were often sentenced to prison until they resolved to do penance for their sins.
Prosecution in the Early Middle Ages
Important political figures were the most frequently known characters in trials against magic, whether defendants, accusers, or victims. This was because high-society trials were more likely to be recorded as opposed to trials involving ordinary townspeople or villagers. For example,
Rise of witch trials
The rise of witch trials is brought about by changes in religion as well as changes to the political world in Europe showing once again how different topics had an influence on witchcraft.The fourteenth century already brought about an increase of
Magic and Christianity
Witchcraft and magic has connections to many other topics in the Middle Ages, making it a very important and influential topic. It has a large connection to religion due to the fact that Christianity had a major impact on those who practiced magic. When Christianity became more strict it viewed witches as atheists, in turn prosecuting them for it.[49] Christianity and Catholicism grew with movements like the Spanish Reconquista, which ended in 1492 when Spain conquered Granada. This movement was a crusade and those involved forced others to convert to Christianity.[50]
See also
- Ceremonial magic – Variety of rituals of magic
- Magical Treatise of Solomon – grimoire influential on the Key of Solomon
- Renaissance magic – Magical science during the Renaissance
References
- ISBN 978-1-107-43182-9.
- ^ Medievalists.net (2021-09-04). "Everyday Magic in the Middle Ages". Medievalists.net. Retrieved 2022-02-24.
- ^ S2CID 162305252.
- ^ Deuteronomy 18:9–18:14
- ^ 2 Chronicles 33:1–33:9
- ^ Acts 13:6–13:12
- ^ Galatians 5:16–5:26
- ^ a b Bailey 2018, p. 99.
- ^ a b Bailey 2018, p. 21.
- ^ Kieckhefer 2000, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Davies 2012, p. 35.
- ^ Flint 1991, p. 5.
- ^ Davies 2012, p. 6; Bailey 2018, p. 88.
- ^ Davies 2012, p. 6.
- ISBN 978-1-349-24836-0. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
- ^ a b Bailey 2018, p. 22.
- ISBN 978-0691031651.
- PMID 11639314.
- ^ Josephy, Marcia Reines (1975). Magic & Superstition in the Jewish Tradition: An Exhibition Organized by the Maurice Spertus Museum of Judaica. Spertus College of Judaica Press. p. 18. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
- ISBN 978-0226482057.
- ISBN 978-0-563-48714-2.
- ^ Humphreys & Wagner (2013), p. 125.
- ^ Hanegraaff (2012), pp. 29–31.
- ^ Clogg (2005).
- ^ Hanegraaff (2012), p. 38.
- ^ Merry (2002).
- ^ Kieckhefer 1994, p. 818.
- (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-14.
- ISBN 9781843837220. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ Heiduk, Herbers & Lehner 2020, p. 834.
- OCLC 50091675.
- OCLC 15520872.
- ISBN 9780870816710.
- OCLC 49564409.
- PMID 25654900– via JTSTOR.
- ^ S2CID 164023962.
- ^ Storms (1948), p. 51.
- ^ Semple (2003).
- ^ Semple (1998).
- ^ Pope (1968), p. 796.
- ^ Meaney (1984).
- ^ a b c d e Lawrence-Mathers (2020).
- ^ Fulton (2012), p. 98.
- ^ Harper-Bill & Van Houts (2007), pp. 200ff.
- ^ Barber (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Parry & Caldwell (1959), p. 79.
- OCLC 50091675.
- ^ Bennett, Judith M. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Women & Gender In Medieval Europe. University Press. pp. 578–587.
- S2CID 143650714– via JSTOR.
- JSTOR 42586616– via JSTOR.
Works cited
- Bailey, Michael D. (2018). Magic: The Basics. ISBN 978-1-138-80961-1.
- ISBN 978-0-85991-163-4.
- Clogg, Richard (6 Jan 2005). "Woodhouse, Christopher Montague [Monty], fifth Baron Terrington (1917–2001), army officer, historian, and politician". required.)
- Davies, Owen (2012). Magic: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199588022.
- Flint, Valerie I. J. (1991). The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691031651.
- Fulton, Helen (2012). A Companion to Arthurian Literature. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-67237-2.
- Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521196215.
- Harper-Bill, Christopher; Van Houts, Elisabeth (2007). A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84383-341-3.
- Heiduk, Matthias; Herbers, Klaus; Lehner, Hans-Christian, eds. (2020). Prognostication in the Medieval World: A Handbook. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110499773.
- Humphreys, Sarah C.; Wagner, Rudolf G. (2013). Modernity's Classics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-33071-1.
- Kieckhefer, Richard (2000). Magic in the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521785761.
- Lawrence-Mathers, A. (2020) [2012]. "Chapter 6: A Demonic Heritage". The True History of Merlin the Magician. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300253085.
- Meaney, Audrey L. (December 1984). "Æfric and Idolatry". Journal of Religious History. 13 (2): 119–135. .
- Merry, Bruce (2002). "George Gemistos Plethon (c. 1355/60–1452)". In Amoia, Alba; Knapp, Bettina L. (eds.). Multicultural Writers from Antiquity to 1945: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group.
- Parry, John Jay; Caldwell, Robert (1959). "Geoffrey of Monmouth". In Loomis, Roger S. (ed.). Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages. Oxford University: Clarendon Press.
- Pope, J. C. (1968). Homilies of Aelfric: a supplementary collection. Early English Text Society 260. Vol. II. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
- Semple, Sarah (June 1998). "A fear of the past: The place of the prehistoric burial mound in the ideology of middle and later Anglo‐Saxon England". World Archaeology. 30 (1): 109–126. JSTOR 125012.
- Semple, Sarah (December 2003). "Illustrations of damnation in late Anglo-Saxon manuscripts" (PDF). Anglo-Saxon England. 32: 231–245. S2CID 161982897.
- Storms, Godfrid (1948). Anglo-Saxon Magic. The Hague: Martinus.
Further reading
- Bailey, Michael D. (2006). "The Meanings of Magic". Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft. 1 (1): 1–23. .
- Otto, Berndt-Christian; Stausberg, Michael (2013). Defining Magic: A Reader. Durham: Equinox. ISBN 978-1908049803.