Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II

Coordinates: 35°N 18°E / 35°N 18°E / 35; 18
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II
)

Mediterranean and Middle East theatre
Part of the
Second World War

A map of the Mediterranean in 1941
Date10 June 1940 – 23 May 1945[c]
(4 years, 11 months and 5 days)
Location
Southern Europe, the Middle East, East Africa, North Africa
35°N 18°E / 35°N 18°E / 35; 18
Result Allied victory
Territorial
changes		 Italy ceded all its African colonies to the Allies, restored Albanian independence, and gave some territory to Yugoslavia and Greece
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
Enver Hoxa
Veli Dedi
Soviet Union Fyodor Tolbukhin
Kingdom of Yugoslavia Dušan Simović
Yugoslav Partisans Josip Broz Tito
Kingdom of Greece Alexandros Papagos
Ethiopian Empire Haile Selassie
Ethiopian Empire Kassa Haile Darge
 Fascist ItalyItalian Social Republic Benito Mussolini Executed
Fascist ItalyItalian Social Republic Rodolfo Graziani
Fascist Italy Pietro Badoglio
Fascist Italy Italo Balbo
Fascist Italy Ugo Cavallero
Fascist Italy Ettore Bastico
Fascist Italy Prince Umberto
Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler †
Nazi Germany Albert Kesselring
Nazi Germany Wilhelm List
Nazi Germany Alexander Löhr Executed

The Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre was a major

Italy entered the war on the side of Germany, until 2 May 1945 when all Axis forces in Italy surrendered. However, fighting would continue in Greece – where British troops had been dispatched to aid the Greek government – during the early stages of the Greek Civil War
.

The British referred to this theatre as the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre (so called due to the location of the fighting and the name of Middle East Command), the Americans called it the Mediterranean Theater of War and the German informal official history of the fighting is the Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941. Despite the large size of the theatre, the various campaigns were not seen as neatly separated areas of operations but part of a vast, contiguous theatre of war.

Fascist Italy aimed to

battle for Italy commenced between the Allied-aligned Kingdom of Italy in the south and Axis-aligned Italian Social Republic in the north, lasting until May 2, 1945 with the Surrender of Caserta
.

The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre had the longest duration of the World War II, resulted in the destruction of the Italian Empire, and severely undermined the strategic position of Germany, resulting in German divisions being deployed to Africa and Italy and total German losses (including those captured upon final surrender) being over two million.[d] Italian losses amounted to around 177,000 men with a further several hundred thousand captured during the process of the various campaigns. British losses amount to over 300,000 men killed, wounded, or captured, and total American losses in the region amounted to 130,000.

Background

Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936.
Legend:
  Metropolitan Italy and dependent territories;
  Client states;
  Claimed territories to be annexed;
  Territories to be transformed into client states.
Albania, which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.

Italy

Further information: Italian Empire

During the late 1920s,

Macedonia and Greece and harked back to the Roman empire. The regime also sought to establish protectorates with Austria, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.[5] Covert motives were for Italy to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean, capable of challenging France or Britain and gaining access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.[3]

On 30 November 1938, Mussolini addressed the

Second Italo–Ethiopian War began when Italian forces invaded Abyssinia.[10]

Mussolini lauded the conquest as a new source of raw materials and location for emigration and speculated that a native army could be raised there to "help conquer the Sudan.[11] "Almost as soon as the Abyssinian campaign ended, Italian intervention in the Spanish Civil War" began.[12] On 7 April 1939, Mussolini began the Italian invasion of Albania and within two days had occupied the country.[13] In May 1939, Italy formally allied to Nazi Germany in the Pact of Steel.[14]

Italian foreign policy went through two stages during the Fascist regime. Until 1934–35, Mussolini followed a "modest ... and responsible" course and following that date there was "ceaseless activity and aggression".[15] "Prior to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini had made military agreements with the French and formed a coalition with the British and French to prevent German aggression in Europe." The Ethiopian War "exposed vulnerabilities and created opportunities that Mussolini seized to realise his imperial vision"[16]

Britain

Middle East Command

At the Nyon Conference of 1937, Italy and the United Kingdom "disclaimed any desire to modify or see modified the national sovereignty of any country in the Mediterranean area, and agreed to discourage any activities liable to impair mutual relations."[17] Italian diplomatic and military moves did not reflect this agreement.[18] In the aftermath of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, British and Italian forces in North Africa were reinforced.[19] Due to various Italian moves, in July 1937, the British decided "that Italy could not now be regarded as a reliable friend" and preparations began to bring "the defences of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea ports up-to-date".[18] In 1938, a weak armoured division was established in Egypt and further army and air force reinforcements were dispatched from Britain.[19][20]

With rising tension in Europe, in June 1939, the United Kingdom established Middle East Command (MEC) in Cairo to provide centralised command for British army units in the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre.[21] All three branches of the British military were made equally responsible for the defence of the area.[22] The authority of MEC included Aden, British Somaliland, Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Greece, Libya, Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, Tanganyika, Transjordan, Uganda and the shores of the Persian Gulf.[23][24][25] If necessary, command would be exerted as far away as the Caucasus and the Indian Ocean. The purpose of the command was to be "the western bastion of defence of India", keep British supply lines open to India and the Far East, and keep the Middle Eastern oilfields out of Axis hands.[25]

Upon the establishment of MEC, it was ordered to co-ordinate with the French military in the Middle East and Africa as well as liaise with the

Romanian Government considered it vital to resist."[28]

British forces in the Middle East were ordered to avoid provocation.

Jaghbub (Giarabub) in Libya and arrangements began in Egypt, to accommodate a much larger force.[31] Preparations to reinforce the Iraqi army were made and Palestinian security forces were to be reduced to the minimum. British forces in East Africa were to study operations to destroy the Italian forces and support local risings, all in support of the main Allied offensive, which was planned to be launched from French Somaliland. Troops in Sudan were also asked to consider launching operations against Kufra in southern Libya.[32]

Initial military operations

Italian occupation zones in shades of yellow and striped blue, "Free zone"
in blue.

On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom and next day the British Commonwealth declared war on Italy.

East African Campaign began with Italian attacks in East Africa, although ground combat did not start until July.[38]

On 22 June, France signed an

took over an 832 km2 (321 sq mi) area of France, which included 28,500 people and the town of Menton.[42][43] The Royal Navy attacked the French fleet in the North African port of Mers-el-Kébir on 3 July 1940, after it refused to sail to Britain or the French West Indies and demobilise, as part of a larger plan to stop the French fleet from falling into German or Italian hands.[44]

When Italy entered the war, there were no plans for an

German invasion of the United Kingdom. While his generals did not believe they were prepared, they were ordered to push forward without any solid objectives.[46]

On 9 September, Italian aircraft start preparation bombardments for the invasion of Egypt. Four days later, Italian infantry attacked and advanced as far as

Greco-Italian War by invading Greece on 28 October. The Greek army repulsed the Italian attack and commenced a counter-offensive on 14 November, which pushed Italian forces back into Albania.[49]

The Royal Navy inflicted a major setback upon the Italian Royal Navy during the

Battle of Kufra ended with the Italians losing the desert oasis of Kufra—a vital link between Italian east and north Africa—which was located in south-eastern Libya.[51]

Axis success

Tientsin concession
in China is not shown)

North Africa

In North Africa, the Italians responded to the defeat of their Tenth Army by dispatching armour and motorised divisions.[52] Germany dispatched the Afrika Korps in Operation Sonnenblume, to bolster the Italians with a mission to block further Allied attempts to drive the Italians out of the region. Its commanding officer—Erwin Rommel—seized on the weakness of his opponents and without waiting for his forces to fully assemble, rapidly went on the offensive.[53][54] In March–April 1941, Rommel defeated the British forces facing him and forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat.[55]

The

Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to Sollum on the Libyan–Egyptian border.[56][57] The main Axis force began the Siege of Tobruk, and a small German force pressed eastwards, retaking all territory lost to Operation Compass, and advanced into Egypt. By the end of April, Sollum had fallen and the important Halfaya Pass captured.[58][59]

East Africa

Main article:
East African Campaign (World War II)

In

Empire of Ethiopia to be re-established under Haile Selassie.[60] A number of Italian garrisons continued to hold out, but the last of these, at Gondar, surrendered in November.[61] Small groups of Italian troops carried out the Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia until October 1943.[62]

Balkans

Kingdom of Hungary

In the Balkans, the Greeks had been reluctant to allow British troops into the country, because Britain could not spare enough forces to guarantee victory. They had, however, accepted aid from the RAF in their war with the Italians in Albania.[63] As it became likely Germany would attack Greece, four British divisions were switched from North Africa to reinforce Greek Army.[63] The advanced guards of these troops began arriving in March 1941, triggering the entry of German forces into Bulgaria, which made clear the German intent to invade Greece.[64]

In April 1941,

royalist Chetniks both fought the occupying forces and collaborated with them against the communists. The Partisans eventually gained recognition from the Allies as the sole resistance movement. With help from both the Soviets and the Western Allies, they turned into a formidable fighting force and successfully liberated the country.[65]

Following the Italian invasion on 28 October 1940, which is usually known as the

Albania
, then a vassal of Italy, from which the Italian troops had attacked.

Bulgaria, creating a second front. Greece received a small reinforcement from British, Australian and New Zealand forces in anticipation of the German attack. The Greek army found itself outnumbered in its effort to defend against both Italian and German troops. As a result, the Metaxas defensive line
did not receive adequate troop reinforcements and was quickly overrun by the Germans, who then outflanked the Greek forces at the Albanian border, forcing their surrender. British, Australian and New Zealand forces were overwhelmed and forced to retreat, with the ultimate goal of evacuation.

After moving through south-eastern Yugoslavia, the Germans had been able to turn the Allied flank, cutting off Greek units in the east of the country. Greek forces in central Macedonia were isolated from the Commonwealth forces moving up in an attempt stabilise the front, with the Germans then falling on the rear of the main Greek army facing the Italians in Macedonia. The German advance into Greece was made easier because the bulk of the Greek Army was engaged fighting the Italians on the Albanian front in the north of the country.[66]

The Greeks were forced to capitulate, ending resistance on the mainland by the end of the month.[67] Abandoning most of its equipment, the Commonwealth force retreated to the island of Crete. From 20 May, the Germans attacked the island by using paratroops to secure an air bridgehead despite suffering heavy casualties. They then flew in more troops and were able to capture the rest of the island by 1 June.[68] With their victory in the Battle of Crete the Germans had secured their southern flank and turned their attention towards the Soviet Union.[69]

North African theatre. Enno von Rintelen, who was the military attaché in Rome, emphasises, from the German point of view, the strategic mistake of not taking Malta.[72]

Middle East operations

Iraq

Main articles: Anglo-Iraqi War and Farhud

When Italy entered the war the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations, as they had done with Germany.

'Abd al-Ilah, learnt of a plot to arrest him and fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya, from whence he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the Insect-class gunboat HMS Cockchafer.[75]

British soldiers looking at Baghdad, 11 June 1941

On 1 April, Rashid Ali, along with four senior Army and Air Force officers known as the "

Article 5 of the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, when he insisted that newly arrived British troops quickly be transported through Iraq and to Palestine.[79]

Before the coup, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany would recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.

French Mandate of Syria and transport them to Iraq. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material and loaned several airbases in northern Syria to Germany, for the transport of German aircraft to Iraq.[81] Between 9 May and the end of the month, about 100 German and about 20 Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields.[82]

On 30 April, the Iraqi Army surrounded and besieged RAF Habbaniya; the base had no operational aircraft but the RAF converted trainers to carry weapons and a battalion of infantry reinforcements was flown in. German and Italian aircraft supported the Iraqi army and British reinforcements were dispatched to Iraq from Transjordan and India. The larger but poorly trained Iraqi force was defeated and Baghdad and

Syria-Lebanon Campaign.[38]

Operation Exporter

Australian troops in Lebanon, 1941
Main article:
Syria–Lebanon Campaign

In Operation Exporter, Australian,

Free French, British and Indian units invaded Syria and Lebanon from Palestine in the south on 8 June 1941. Vigorous resistance was met from the Vichy French but superior Allied infantry equipment and numbers overwhelmed the defenders. More attacks were launched at the end of June and early July from Iraq into northern and central Syria, by Iraqforce. By 8 July, north-east Syria had been captured and elements of Iraqforce had advanced up the river Euphrates towards Aleppo, the rear of the Vichy forces defending Beirut from the advance from the south. Negotiations for an armistice were started on 11 July and surrender terms signed on 14 July.[38]

Iran

Main article:
Operation Countenance

Supplies to the

Iran. Though officially neutral, the Shah was widely viewed as pro-German by the allies. Following the Shah's refusal to open Iran up as a supply route for war materiel to the USSR; the allies invaded and occupied Iran in August 1941. The Shah, who urged his military not to resist the invasion, was deposed and his young son placed on the throne as titular head of an allied controlled puppet government. Iranian oil fields were secured and the line of supply to Russia established and maintained for the remainder of the war.[38]

Mandatory Palestine

Main article:
Operation Atlas (Mandatory Palestine)

Operation Atlas was carried out by a special commando unit of the

Templer religious sect in Mandatory Palestine, and two Palestinian Arabs who were close collaborators of the mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini. Atlas aimed at establishing an intelligence-gathering base in Mandatory Palestine, radioing information back to Germany, and recruiting and arming anti-British Palestinians by buying their support with gold.[83] The plan failed utterly, and no meaningful action could be undertaken by the commandos. Three of the participants were arrested by the Transjordan Frontier Force a few days after their landing. The German commander was captured in 1946 and the fifth, Hasan Salama
, succeeded in escaping.

Operation Mammoth

Main article: Operation Mammoth

In 1943 a small team of German agents parachuted into Iraqi Kurdistan with the goal of covertly sabotaging Kirkuk oil fields and create a Kurdish uprising against the British with assistance from local Kurds who were seeking to create an independent Kurdistan. Further reinforcements of Nazis with weapons was supposed to be sent but the mission failed within days as the Nazi commandos landed 300 km away from their target destination and lost their weapons. They were soon arrested by the British and faced execution as spies, however they were released several years after World War II ended. Gottfried Müller, one of the Nazi parachuters, would later write and publish a book describing his experiences in Kurdistan named “Im brennenden Orient” ('The Burning Orient'), which was published in Germany in 1959.[84]

Gibraltar and Malta

Five Malta-based RAF pilots sitting in front of a Beaufighter and a Spitfire at RAF Luqa, January 1943
Main articles:
Mediterranean U-boat Campaign (World War II)

Gibraltar commanded the entrance to the Mediterranean and had been a British fortress since the early 18th century. The territory provided a strongly defended harbour, from which ships could operate in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.

James Somerville) was based in Gibraltar and had the task of maintaining naval superiority and providing a strong escort for convoys to and from the Malta.[85] Malta was 60 miles (97 km) from Sicily and one of the first targets of the Italian army and the Regia Aeronautica; the air defence of Malta comprised six obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplanes. After the first Italian air attacks it became clear that Malta could be defended and in early July, the Gladiators were reinforced by twelve Hawker Hurricane fighters.[85]

The

OB Süd) in Italy. Additional bases were established in Pola and La Spezia in northern Italy, as more U-boats were sent to the Mediterranean.[87]

Bombing and the naval blockade led to food and commodity shortages and rationing was imposed on the inhabitants. Luftwaffe reinforcements in the Mediterranean joined in the bombing but during a lull in early 1942, 61 Supermarine Spitfires were delivered, which very much improved the defensive situation, although food, ammunition, and fuel were still short.[85] Supply runs during lulls in the bombing kept Malta in being but many ships like SS Ohio were damaged too severely to leave. The defence of the island ensured that the Allies had an advantage in the fight to control the Mediterranean and as the garrison recovered from periods of intense bombing, aircraft, submarines and light surface ships resumed attacks on Axis supply ships, leading to fuel and supply shortages for the Axis forces in Libya.[85]

Allied reply

North Africa

Main article:
Western Desert Campaign
British gunners cleaning a 3.7-inch anti-aircraft gun near Tobruk, 19 August 1941

During 1941, the British launched several offensives to push back the Axis forces in North Africa. Operation Brevity failed as did Operation Battleaxe but Operation Crusader, the third and larger offensive was launched at the end of the year. Over December 1941 into early 1942, Allied forces pushed the Italian-German forces back through Libya to roughly the limit of the previous Operation Compass advance. Taking advantage of the Allied position, German forces counter-attacked and pushed back the Allies to Gazala, west of Tobruk. As both sides prepared offensives, the Axis forces struck first and inflicted a big defeat upon the Allied forces during the Battle of Gazala.[88] The routed Allied forces retreated to Egypt where they made a stand at El Alamein.[89]

Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance into Egypt, British forces went onto the offensive in October.[89] The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a watershed in the Western Desert Campaign and turned the tide in the North African Campaign. It ended the Axis threat to Egypt, the Suez Canal and of gaining access to the Middle Eastern and Persian oil fields via North Africa. As the Eighth Army pushed west across the desert, capturing Libya, German forces occupied southern France and landed in Tunisia. On 8 November, Allied forces launched Operation Torch landing in various places across French North Africa. In December 1942, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell to the Allies.[90]

US involvement

U.S. troops taken prisoner during the Battle of Kasserine Pass march through a Tunisian village

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, the United States joined the war.[91] On 8 November 1942, American forces entered combat in North Africa with Operation Torch, which "transformed the Mediterranean from a British to an Allied theater of war", "succeeding operations in the Mediterranean area proved far more extensive than intended. One undertaking was to lead to the next".[92]

After liberating French North Africa and clearing the enemy from the Italian colonies, the Allies sought to bring the entire French empire effectively into the war against the Axis powers. They reopened the Mediterranean route to the Middle East. They went on from Africa to liberate Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. They caused Mussolini to topple from power, and they brought his successors to surrender. They drew more and more German military resources into a stubborn defence of the Italian peninsula, and helped the Yugoslavs to pin down within their spirited country thousands of Axis troops. Eventually, the Allies delivered a solid blow from southern France against the German forces which were opposing the Allied drive from the beaches of Normandy! They made Marseilles available for Allied use and they occupied northern Italy and Greece." Howe further notes that "Hitler had always accepted the principle that the Mediterranean was an area of paramount Italian interest just as, farther north, German interests were exclusive.[92]

Allied forces were placed under the command of a Supreme Allied Commander

prisoners of war.[93]

Southern Europe

Italian campaign and Italian Civil War

Main articles: Italian campaign (World War II) and Italian Civil War
Men of the 10th Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment, part of the 168th Brigade of the British 56th Division, climbing the heights of Calvi Risorta shortly after the invasion of Italy, October 1943.

Following the Allied victory in North Africa the Allies invaded Sicily in Operation Husky on 10 July 1943, with amphibious and airborne landings. The Germans were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island but evacuated most of their troops and equipment to the mainland before the Allies entered Messina on 17 August.[94] On 25 July, the Italian government deposed Mussolini, the Italian leader, who was subsequently arrested. The new government announced that it would continue the war but secretly commenced negotiations with the Allies.[95]

The Allied invasion of Italy started when the British Eighth Army landed in the toe of Italy on 3 September 1943, in Operation Baytown. The Italian government signed the surrender the same day, believing they would be given time to make preparations against the anticipated German intervention. The Allies announced the Armistice of Cassibile on 8 September and German forces implemented plans to occupy the Italian peninsula. On 9 September, American and British forces of the US Fifth Army landed at Salerno in Operation Avalanche and more British airborne troops landed at Taranto in Operation Slapstick.[96] German forces which had escaped from Sicily were concentrated against Avalanche, while additional forces were brought in to occupy Rome and disarm the Italian Army in central and northern Italy.[97]

The Germans were unable to prevent the Italian fleet sailing to Malta, although the battleship Roma was sunk by the Luftwaffe on 9 September.[95] In the occupied areas of southern Europe and the Mediterranean, German forces rapidly disarmed and captured Italian troops, putting down any resistance they offered in Yugoslavia, southern France and Greece.[98] Meanwhile, on 16 September, a German airborne force led by Otto Skorzeny rescued Mussolini from the mountain resort in the Gran Sasso where he was being held. A puppet government headed by Mussolini was subsequently set up in northern Italy as the successor state to the former fascist government.[99]

The

collaborationist governments with Nazi Germany, armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.[100] In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian Giorgio Pisanò in his books,[101][102] while Claudio Pavone's book Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance), published in 1991, led to the term "Italian Civil War" being used more frequently by Italian and international[103][104]
historiography.

As the campaign in Italy continued, the rough terrain prevented fast movement and proved ideal for defence, the Allies continued to push the Germans northwards through the rest of the year. The German prepared defensive line called the Winter Line (parts of which were called the Gustav Line) proved a major obstacle to the Allies at the end of 1943, halting the advance. Operation Shingle, an amphibious assault at Anzio behind the line was intended to break it, but did not have the desired effect. The line was eventually broken by frontal assault at the Fourth Battle of Monte Cassino in the spring of 1944 and Rome was captured in June.[105]

Following the fall of Rome, the

Commander-in-Chief of the German 10th Army, General Heinrich von Vietinghoff, after Operation Sunrise (protracted, clandestine, negotiations with the Allies), ordered German armed forces in Italy to make an unconditional surrender to the Allies on 2 May 1945.[110]

Dodecanese Campaign

Brazilian soldiers celebrate the Brazilian Independence Day in Italy during World War II, September 1944.
Main article: Dodecanese campaign

The brief campaign in the Italian-held

paratroopers and Brandenburger commandos, launched a counter-offensive, capturing the island of Kos within two days in early October. A massive 50-day-long aerial campaign was launched against the island of Leros defended by Italian troops commanded by Admiral Mascherpa, who resisted the German air offensive before the landing of British support troops, which was invaded by the Germans who landed by sea and air on 12 November and surrendered four days later. The remaining British garrisons were then evacuated to the Middle East.[105]

Invasion of southern France

Main article: Operation Dragoon

On 15 August 1944, in an effort to aid their operations in

European Theatre fighting as one of three Allied army groups on the Western Front.[105]

Post-war conflicts

Trieste

At the end of the war in Europe, on 1 May 1945, troops of the 4th Army of the Yugoslavia and the Slovene 9th Corpus NLA occupied the town of Trieste. The Germans surrendered to the Allies which entered the town the following day. The Yugoslavs had to leave the town some days after.[110]

Greece

See also: Dekemvriana

Allied forces which had been sent to Greece in October 1944 after the German withdrawal, were attacked by the leftist

Resistance movement, resulting in clashes in Athens during December of that year, which began the Greek Civil War.[111]

Syria

Further information: Levant Crisis

In Syria, nationalist protests were on the rise at the continued occupation of the Levant by France in May 1945. French forces then tried to quell the protests but concern with heavy Syrian casualties forced Winston Churchill to oppose French action there. After being rebuffed by Charles De Gaulle he ordered British forces under general Bernard Paget into Syria from Jordan with orders to fire on the French if necessary. A crisis began as British armoured cars and troops then reached the Syrian capital Damascus following which the French were escorted and confined to their barracks. With political pressure added the French ordered a ceasefire; following which the French withdrew from Syria the following year.[112]

Palestine

Further information: Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine

Prior to the war, the British Mandate of Palestine was faced with

civil war between Palestinian Arabs and Jews broke out and lasted until the British withdrawal of the territory in May 1948, which later drew in neighbouring nations into the conflict, causing the start of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Participated in the Invasion of Yugoslavia.
  2. ^ Participated in Operation Achse.
  3. ^ Germany unconditionally surrendered on 8 May 1945 but Croatia still fought until the end of the Battle of Odžak on 23 May.
  4. Second World War, the Battle of the Atlantic was fought from 1939 to 1945, the war's longest continuous military campaign.[1][2]

Citations

  1. ^ Blair (1996), p. xiii
  2. ^ Woodman (2004), p. 1
  3. ^ a b Smith, p. 170
  4. ^ Martel, p. 184, 198
  5. ^ Bideleux and Jeffries, p. 467
  6. ^ a b Bell, p. 72
  7. ^ a b Salerno, pp. 105–106
  8. ^ Bell, pp. 72–73
  9. ^ Mallet, p. 9
  10. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 21
  11. ^ Bell, p. 70
  12. ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 135–6.
  13. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 24
  14. ^ Weinberg, p. 73
  15. ^ Bell, p. 76
  16. ^ Martel, pp. 178, 198
  17. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 7
  18. ^ a b Playfair (1954), p. 8
  19. ^ a b Fraser, pp. 18–19
  20. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 12
  21. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 31–32, 459
  22. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 33
  23. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 31, 457
  24. ^ Bilgin, p.74
  25. ^ a b Fraser, p. 114
  26. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 458
  27. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 51, 53
  28. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 24–25
  29. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 41
  30. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 48–49
  31. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 54
  32. ^ Playfair (1954) p. 53
  33. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 100
  34. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 109
  35. ^ Wragg, p. 228.
  36. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 112
  37. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 118
  38. ^ a b c d e f Overy, pp. 56–57
  39. ^ Jowett, p. 5.
  40. ^ Bell, p. 306
  41. ^ Bulletin of International News, pp. 852–854
  42. ^ Rodogno, p. 9
  43. ^ Maier, p. 311
  44. ^ Weinberg, pp. 145–146.
  45. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 207
  46. ^ Macksey, p. 35
  47. ^ Playfair (1954), pp. 209–210
  48. ^ Carol, p. 12.
  49. ^ a b Weinberg, p. 210.
  50. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 2–5
  51. ^ Martel (1994), p. 108.
  52. ^ Bauer, p.121
  53. ^ Jentz, p. 82
  54. ^ Rommel, p. 109
  55. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 19–40
  56. ^ Latimer, pp. 43–45
  57. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 33–35
  58. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 160
  59. ^ Jentz, pp. 128–129, 131
  60. ^ Weinberg, p. 211.
  61. ^ Fage, Crowder & Oliver, p. 461.
  62. ^ Cernuschi, 1994, pp. 5–74
  63. ^ a b Weinberg, p. 217.
  64. ^ Keegan, pp. 120–121.
  65. ^ Overy, pp. 68–71
  66. ^ Stockings & Hancock, pp. 78–82
  67. ^ Weinberg, pp. 221–222.
  68. ^ Keegan, pp. 129–139.
  69. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 148–149.
  70. ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5
    .
  71. ISBN 978-3-76375-923-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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  72. OCLC 4025485
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  73. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 177
  74. ^ Churchill, p. 224
  75. ^ a b c Playfair (1956), p. 178
  76. ^ Lyman, p. 12
  77. ^ Lyman, p. 13
  78. ^ Lyman, p. 16
  79. ^ Lyman, p. 31
  80. ^ Lyman, p. 63
  81. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 194–195
  82. ^ Churchill, p. 288
  83. ^ Fountain 2001.
  84. ^ "History of the Kurds". Kurdistan Memory Programme.
  85. ^ a b c d Sturgeon, pp. 180–181
  86. ^ "23rd Flotilla". Guðmundur Helgason. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
  87. ^ Blair (1996), pp. 395–404
  88. ^ Overy, pp. 120–121
  89. ^ a b Overy, pp. 130–131.
  90. ^ Overy, pp. 134–137.
  91. ^ Weinberg, pp. 260–263.
  92. ^ a b Howe, pp. 3–10
  93. ^ Overy, pp. 148–149
  94. ^ Keegan, pp. 288–290.
  95. ^ a b Keegan, p. 291.
  96. ^ Sturgeon, pp. 212–213.
  97. ^ Keegan, pp. 291–292.
  98. ^ Keegan, p. 292.
  99. ^ Keegan, pp. 292–293.
  100. ^ De Felice 1995, p. 22.
  101. ^ Storia della guerra civile in Italia
  102. ^ See the books from Italian historian Giorgio Pisanò Storia della guerra civile in Italia, 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book L'Italia della guerra civile ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist Indro Montanelli as the fifteen volume of the Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy") by the same author.
  103. ^ See as examples the interview to French historian Pierre Milza on the Corriere della Sera of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the lessons of historian Thomas Schlemmer at the University of Munchen (in German).
  104. ISBN 9781139499644
    .
  105. ^ a b c Clark, p. 3.
  106. ^ Clark, p. 1.
  107. ^ Ready (1985a)
  108. ^ Ready (1985b)
  109. ^ Corrigan (2011), p. 523
  110. ^ a b Sturgeon, pp. 304–305
  111. ^ Sturgeson, pp. 274–275
  112. ^ Luce, Henry Robinson (1945). Time, Volume 45. Time Incorporated. pp. 25–26.

References

Books

Journals

Websites

Further reading

External links

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