Meiji era
Meiji era 明治時代 | |||
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October 23, 1868 – July 30, 1912 | |||
Location | Japan | ||
Including | |||
Monarch(s) | Meiji | ||
Key events | Meiji Restoration | ||
Chronology
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Part of a series on the |
History of Japan |
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The Meiji era (明治時代, Meiji jidai,
The rapid modernization during the Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori who led the Satsuma Rebellion. However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke.
Meiji Restoration
On February 3, 1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor.
This coincided with pressure on the ruling
The first reform was the promulgation of the
- Deliberative assembly shall be widely established and all matters decided by public discussion
- All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out the administration of the affairs of state
- The common people, no less than the civil and military of officials, shall each be allowed to pursue his own calling so that there may be no discontent.
- Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of nature.
- Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.
Implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the
The Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow the old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title—Meiji, or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from
Confirmed in their hereditary positions, the daimyo became governors, and the central government assumed their administrative expenses and paid
In as much as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a
Politics
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2023) |
A major proponent of representative government was Itagaki Taisuke (1837–1919), a powerful Tosa leader who had resigned from the Council of State over the Korean affair in 1873. Itagaki sought peaceful, rather than rebellious, means to gain a voice in government. He started a school and a movement aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and a legislative assembly. Such movements were called The Freedom and People's Rights Movement. Itagaki and others wrote the Tosa Memorial in 1874, criticizing the unbridled power of the oligarchy and calling for the immediate establishment of representative government.
Between 1871 and 1873, a series of land and tax laws were enacted as the basis for modern fiscal policy. Private ownership was legalized, deeds were issued, and lands were assessed at fair market value with taxes paid in cash rather than in kind as in pre-Meiji days and at slightly lower rates.
Dissatisfied with the pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide
In 1882, Ōkuma Shigenobu established the Rikken Kaishintō (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the Rikken Teiseitō (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government restrictions. The restrictions hindered the political parties and led to divisions within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishinto, was disbanded in 1884 and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president.
Government leaders, long preoccupied with violent threats to stability and the serious leadership split over the Korean affair, generally agreed that
The Osaka Conference in 1875 resulted in the reorganization of government with an independent judiciary and an appointed
Three years later, the Conference of Prefectural Governors established elected prefectural assemblies. Although limited in their authority, these assemblies represented a move in the direction of representative government at the national level, and by 1880 assemblies also had been formed in villages and towns. In 1880 delegates from twenty-four prefectures held a national convention to establish the Kokkai Kisei Dōmei.
Although the government was not opposed to parliamentary rule, confronted with the drive for "people's rights", it continued to try to control the political situation. New laws in 1875 prohibited press criticism of the government or discussion of national laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servants and requiring police permission for all meetings.
Within the ruling circle, however, and despite the conservative approach of the leadership, Okuma continued as a lone advocate of British-style government, a government with political parties and a cabinet organized by the majority party, answerable to the national assembly. He called for elections to be held by 1882 and for a national assembly to be convened by 1883; in doing so, he precipitated a political crisis that ended with an 1881 imperial rescript declaring the establishment of a national assembly in 1890 and dismissing Okuma.
Rejecting the British model,
Ito was put in charge of the new Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems in 1884, and the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Ito as prime minister. The positions of chancellor (or chief-minister),
To further strengthen the authority of the State, the Supreme War Council was established under the leadership of Yamagata Aritomo (1838–1922), a Chōshū native who has been credited with the founding of the modern Japanese army and was to become the first constitutional Prime Minister. The Supreme War Council developed a German-style general staff system with a chief of staff who had direct access to the Emperor and who could operate independently of the army minister and civilian officials.
The Constitution of the Empire of Japan was enacted on November 29, 1890.[4] It was a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy.[5] The Emperor of Japan was legally the supreme leader, and the Cabinet were his followers. The Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council. In reality, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government.
Class distinctions were mostly eliminated during modernization to create a representative democracy. The samurai lost their status as the only class with military privileges. However, during the Meiji period, most leaders in Japanese society (politics, business and military) were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai.
The 1889
In the early years of constitutional government, the strengths and weaknesses of the Meiji Constitution were revealed. A small clique of Satsuma and Chōshū elite continued to rule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extra-constitutional body of genrō (elder statesmen). Collectively, the genrō made decisions reserved for the Emperor, and the genrō, not the Emperor, controlled the government politically.
Throughout the period, however, political problems usually were solved through compromise, and political parties gradually increased their power over the government and held an ever-larger role in the political process as a result. Between 1891 and 1895, Ito served as Prime Minister with a cabinet composed mostly of genrō who wanted to establish a government party to control the House of Representatives. Although not fully realized, the trend toward party politics was well established.
Society
On its return, one of the first acts of the government was to establish new ranks for the nobility. Five hundred people from the old court nobility, former daimyo, and samurai who had provided valuable service to the Emperor were organized into a new peerage, the Kazoku, consisting of five ranks: prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron.
In the transition between the Edo period and the Meiji era, the Ee ja nai ka movement, a spontaneous outbreak of ecstatic behavior, took place.
In 1885, noted public intellectual
The Meiji era saw a flowering of public discourse on the direction of Japan. Works like Nakae Chōmin's A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government[7] debated how best to blend the new influences coming from the West with local Japanese culture. Grassroots movements like the Freedom and People's Rights Movement called for the establishment of a formal legislature, civil rights, and greater pluralism in the Japanese political system. Journalists, politicians, and writers actively participated in the movement, which attracted an array of interest groups, including women's rights activists.[8]
The elite class of the Meiji era adapted many aspects of Victorian taste, as seen in the construction of Western-style pavilions and reception rooms called yōkan or yōma in their homes. These parts of Meiji homes were displayed in popular magazines of the time, such as Ladies' Graphic, which portrayed the often empty rooms of the homes of the aristocracy of all levels, including the imperial palaces. Integrating Western cultural forms with an assumed, untouched native Japanese spirit was characteristic of Meiji society, especially at the top levels, and represented Japan's search for a place within a new world power system in which European colonial empires dominated.[9]
Fashion
The production of
The technology of the time allowed for subtle color gradients rather than abrupt changes of color. Another trend was for outer and inner garments of the same design.[16] Another trend in the Meiji era was for women's under-kimono made by combining pieces of different fabric, sometimes of radically different colors and designs.[17] For men, the trend was for highly decorative under-kimono that would be covered by outer kimono that were plain or very simply designed. Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colors, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions.[18] Japanese exports led to kimono becoming an object of fascination in the West.[19]
Economy
The Industrial Revolution in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin).
In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories.
Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.[20] Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn.[21]
The first railway was opened between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The rail system was rapidly developed throughout Japan well into the twentieth century. The introduction of railway transportation led to more efficient production due to the decrease in transport costs, allowing manufacturing firms to move into more populated interior regions of Japan in search for labor input. The railway also enabled newfound access to raw materials that had previously been too difficult or too costly to transport.[22]
There were at least two reasons for the speed of Japan's modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called
Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government led Japan through the process of industrialization, borrowing technology and economic policy from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials.
Other economic reforms passed by the government included the creation of a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conductive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but was completed by the 1890s, by which time the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. The Land Tax Reform of 1873 was another significant fiscal reform by the Meiji government, establishing the right of private land ownership for the first time in Japan's history.
Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old
The industrial economy continued to expand rapidly, until about 1920, due to inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. By World War I, Japan had become a major industrial nation.
Military
Overview
Undeterred by opposition, the Meiji leaders continued to modernize the nation through government-sponsored telegraph cable links to all major Japanese cities and the Asian mainland and construction of railroads, shipyards, munitions factories, mines, textile manufacturing facilities, factories, and experimental agriculture stations. Greatly concerned about national security, the leaders made significant efforts at military modernization, which included establishing a small standing army, a large reserve system, and compulsory militia service for all men. Foreign military systems were studied, foreign advisers, especially French ones, were brought in, and Japanese cadets sent abroad to Europe and the United States to attend military and naval schools.
Early Meiji period (1868–77)
In 1854, after
In 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal. The same year,
In 1870, Japan expanded its military production base by opening another arsenal in Osaka. The Osaka Arsenal was responsible for the production of machine guns and ammunition.[26] Also, four gunpowder facilities were opened at this site. Japan's production capacity gradually expanded.
In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Saigō Jūdō, both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in the same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings.[27]
In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French.[28] The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major.
Despite the Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when Saigō Takamori led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into the castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end the siege on Kumamoto Castle after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake. Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following the final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai.
Foreign relations
When the
Following Japan's victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), Japan broke through as an international power with a victory against Russia in Manchuria (north-eastern China) in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Allied with Britain since the Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed in London on January 30, 1902, Japan joined the Allies in World War I, seizing German-held territory in China and the Pacific in the process, but otherwise remained largely out of the conflict.
Following World War I, a weakened Europe left a greater share in international markets to the United States and Japan, which emerged greatly strengthened. Japanese competition made great inroads into hitherto-European-dominated markets in Asia, not only in China, but even in European colonies such as India and Indonesia, reflecting the development of the Meiji era.
The final years of the Meiji era were also marked by the annexation of
Art
The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japanese arts at a succession of world's fairs, beginning with the 1873 Vienna World's Fair.[29][30]
As well as heavily funding the fairs, the government took an active role organizing how Japan's culture was presented to the world. It created a semi-public company — the Kiritsu Kosho Kaisha (First Industrial Manufacturing Company) — to promote and commercialize exports of art
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Byōbu Dragon and tiger (竜虎図) left side, 1895, by Hashimoto Gahō
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Byōbu Dragon and tiger right side, 1895, by Hashimoto Gahō
As Western imports became popular, demand for Japanese art declined within Japan itself.[35] In Europe and America, the new availability of Japanese art led to a fascination for Japanese culture; a craze known in Europe as Japonisme.[36] Imperial patronage, government sponsorship, promotion to new audiences, and Western technology combined to foster an era of Japanese artistic innovation. In the decorative arts, Japanese artists reached new levels of technical sophistication.[31]
Today, Masayuki Murata owns more than 10,000 Meiji art works and is one of the most enthusiastic collectors. From that time, most of the excellent works of Meiji Art were bought by foreign collectors and only a few of them remained in Japan, but because he bought back many works from foreign countries and opened the Kiyomizu Sannenzaka Museum,[37] the study and reevaluation of Meiji Art rapidly advanced in Japan from the 21st century.[38] Nasser Khalili is also one of the world's most dedicated collectors of Meiji art, and his collection encompasses many categories of Meiji art. The Japanese Imperial Family also owns excellent works of Meiji Art, some of which were donated to the state and are now stored in the Museum of the Imperial Collections.
Enamels
During the Meiji era, Japanese cloisonné enamel reached a technical peak, producing items more advanced than any that had existed before.[39] The period from 1890 to 1910 was known as the "Golden age" of Japanese enamels.[40] Artists experimented with pastes and with the firing process to produce ever larger blocks of enamel, with less need for cloisons (enclosing metal strips).[39] During this period, enamels with a design unique to Japan, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space.[41] The two most famous enamelers of this era were Namikawa Yasuyuki and Namikawa Sōsuke, whose family names sound the same but who were not related.[41] Namikawa Sōsuke promoted his work as technically innovative and adopted a style resembling fine paintings. Namikawa Yasuyuki was more conservative, opting for geometrical patterns but gradually becoming more pictorial during his career.[42] Along with the two Namikawa, the Ando Cloisonné Company has produced many high-quality cloisonné works.
Lacquerware
Gold- or silver-decorated lacquerwares had been popular in the Edo period but fell out of favor in the early nineteenth-century due to economic hardship.[43] The Meiji era saw a renewed interest in lacquer as artists developed new designs and experimented with new textures and finishes. Foremost among these was Shibata Zeshin,[43] who has been called "Japan's greatest lacquerer".[44] The appeal of his highly original style was in the choice of motifs and subject matter rather than embedded gold and silver. He placed lacquer panels in frames, imitating Western oil paintings.[45] Other notable lacquer artists of the 19th century include Nakayama Komin and Shirayama Shosai, both of whom, in contrast with Zeshin, maintained a classical style that owed a lot to Japanese and Chinese landscape art.[46] Maki-e, decorating the lacquer in gold or silver dust, was the most common technique for quality lacquerware in this period.[47] Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognized as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.[45]
Metalwork
At the start of the Meiji era, Japanese metalwork was almost totally unknown outside the country, unlike lacquer and porcelain which had previously been exported.[48] Metalwork was connected to Buddhist practice, for example in the use of bronze for temple bells and incense cauldrons, so there were fewer opportunities for metalworkers once Buddhism was displaced as the state religion.[48] International exhibitions brought Japanese cast bronze to a new foreign audience, attracting strong praise.[48] Suzuki Chokichi, a leading producer of cast bronze for international exhibition, became director of the Kiritsu Kosho Kaisha from 1874 to the company's dissolution in 1891. In 1896 he was appointed Artist to the Imperial Household.[48] The works of Chokichi and his contemporaries took inspiration from late Edo period carvings and prints, combining and sometimes exaggerating traditional design elements in new ways to appeal to the export market.[49] The past history of samurai weaponry equipped Japanese metalworkers to create metallic finishes in a wide range of colors. By combining and finishing copper, silver and gold in different proportions, they created specialized alloys including shakudō and shibuichi. With this variety of alloys and finishes, an artist could give the impression of full-color decoration.[50] Some of these metalworkers were appointed Artists to the Imperial Household, including Kano Natsuo, Unno Shomin, Namekawa Sadakatsu, and Jomi Eisuke II.[51]
Porcelain
Japan's porcelain industry was well-established at the start of the Meiji era, but the mass-produced wares were not known for their elegance.[52] During this era, technical and artistic innovations turned porcelain into one of the most internationally successful Japanese decorative art forms.[52] The career of porcelain artist Makuzu Kōzan is an archetype for the trajectory of Meiji art.[52] He was passionate about preserving traditional influences but adopted new technologies from the West.[52] He was an entrepreneur as well as an artist, organizing a workshop with many artisans[53] and actively promoting his work at international exhibitions, travelling extensively in Europe.[54] As his career went on, he adopted more Western influences on his decoration,[55] while his works shaped Western perceptions of Japanese design.[42] Underglaze blue painting on porcelain was well-established in Japan, and the Kozan workshop transformed this practice, combining multiple underglaze colors on a single item and introducing more subtle graduations of color.[56]
Ivory carving
In the Meiji period, Japanese clothes began to be westernized and the number of people who wore
Textiles
The 1902 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "In no branch of applied art does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress during recent years. [...] Kawashima of Kyoto [...] inaugurated the departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, but it may safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the pieces now produced in Japan".[62] Very large, colorful pictorial works were being produced in Kyoto. Embroidery had become an art form in its own right, adopting a range of pictorial techniques such as chiaroscuro and aerial perspective.[62]
Music
This section possibly contains original research. (November 2020) |
The interaction of Western and Japanese music in Meiji era is foremost linked to the military, religious and educational fields. The Japanese assimilated Western culture and its music with the same surprising speed. Music panorama in Japan gradually became lively and prolific where the Western-inspired style music was flourishing.[63][64][65]
Military music
The very first stage of Western adaptation in the Meiji period is associated with the military field. A little before the reopening of Japan the first military academy based on Dutch model was founded in Nagasaki where, alongside the military training, military music was taught, since it was acknowledged to be an important component of the martial arts. The first military band, called kotekitai, consisted of woodwind instruments and drums, was organized there.
Gradually, Western music became an integral part of the Japanese culture where the importance of Western music was undertaken as a part of a social project. The military bands played prominent role in the society. That included public concerts of Western music, which were held in a famous
With the contribution of foreign and Japanese authors, the first military music score collections were completed and published. In the military field, the Japanese conducting school was formed, the founders of which were English, French and German cultural figures such as John William Fenton, Charles Leroux, and Franz Eckert. Under their leadership, the first Japanese military conductors were raised: Suketsune Nakamura and Yoshitoyo Yotsumoto.[63]
Christian music
Christian missions also became an important way for spreading Western-style music in Meiji era.
In the sixteenth century Portuguese missionaries introduced the first Western-style music to Japan: sacred choral music, music for organ, flute, harp, trumpet, violin, alto, double bass. However, soon
The Orthodox mission introduced traditional choral music in Japan. The great impact in the choral music development was made by Ukrainian musicians: conductors Yakov Tikhai (served in the Orthodox mission from 1874 to 1886) and Dmytro Livovsky (served in the Orthodox mission from 1880 to 1921). They organized the first traditional choirs in Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Tokyo (known as Nikolai-do), taught music in Tokyo Theological Seminary, completed and published the first musical score collections, and educated the first Japanese choir conductors and music teachers.[citation needed] Among them are Roman Chiba, Alexey Obara, Innokentiy Kisu, Yakov Maedako, Petr Tokairin, Ioan Nakashima, Moisei Kawamura, Ioan Owata, Pavel Isiya, Vasiliy Takeda, Andrey Abe, Alexandr Komagai, Fedor Minato, Alexey Sawabe, Luka Orit.
All of them became Orthodox Christians and adopted Christian names.[63]
Education
The educational field also was a major way for adopting Western-style music.[66] The educational reforms were led by Isawa Shūji (1851–1917) and Luther Whiting Mason (1828–1896). In 1880, the Music Research Institute in Tokyo (Ongaku Torishirabe Gakari), headed by Izawa Shuji, was founded. The Institute had three main tasks: 1) to introduce compulsory music teaching in schools, to introduce Western-style songs; 2) to train music teachers for the further development of professional musical activities; 3) to create music score collections for children, in which Japanese and Western style music elements could be combined. Thus, the first music scores “The First Collection for Primary School” was published in 1881. The newly educated music teachers organized lessons in singing, music theory, playing musical instruments (koto, kokyū, piano, organ and violin).
In 1887, the Music Research Institute was reformed into Tokyo Academy of Music, which gave the Institution a new status and contributed to its further development. Western music was regarded as an essential contributory factor for modernization. The new curriculum was improved, and the number and quality of the musical events increased.
Tokyo Academy of Music became the first Western-style music educational establishment in Japan. This was the nascence of schools teaching composition in the Western style in Japan, the genesis of an opera tradition in Japan, and laid the foundations for the Japanese formal tradition of familiarization with Western music.[63]
Conversion table
To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1868 and 1912 to Japanese calendar year in Meiji era, 1867 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.
Meiji | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AD | 1868 | 1869 | 1870 | 1871 | 1872 | 1873 | 1874 | 1875 | 1876 | 1877 | 1878 | 1879 | 1880 | 1881 | 1882 | 1883 |
Meiji | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 |
AD | 1884 | 1885 | 1886 | 1887 | 1888 | 1889 | 1890 | 1891 | 1892 | 1893 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 |
Meiji | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | |||
AD | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 |
See also
- Japanese Taiwan
- Japanese Korea
- Japanese nationalism
- List of political figures of Meiji Japan
- Rising Sun Flag
- Battle of Pyongyang (1894)
- Battle of Yalu River (1894)
- Battle of Jiuliancheng
- Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)
Notes
- ^ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Meiji" in Japan encyclopedia, p. 624, p. 624, at Google Books; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, see Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File.
- ^ Takano, p. 256.
- Meiji Jingū Gaien, ed. (2001). 聖徳記念絵画館壁画 [Explanatory Notes on pictures in Memorial Picture Gallery, Meiji Jingū] (in Japanese and English).
- ^ "Meiji Constitution | 1889, Japan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
- ISBN 978-3643100856.
- S2CID 191642343.
- ^ Nakae, C. and Tsukui, N. and Hammond, J. A Discourse by Three Drunkards on Government. 1984.
- ^ Hane, M. Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: Rebel Women in Prewar Japan. University of California Press. 1988.
- S2CID 143701933.
- ^ Iwao 2015, p. 11.
- ^ a b Jackson 2015, p. 117.
- ^ a b Jackson 2015, p. 118.
- ^ Jackson 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Jackson 2015, p. 113.
- ^ Guth 2015, p. 110.
- ^ Jackson 2015, pp. 126–134.
- ^ Jackson 2015, p. 137.
- ^ Jackson 2015, pp. 142–144.
- ^ Iwao 2015, p. 9.
- OCLC 533080.
- ^ Landes, David S. (1999). The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor. New York: Norton. pp. 379–80.
- S2CID 154701739– via CRKN Cambridge University Press Journals.
- ^ "Ueno Park". National Diet Library. Retrieved September 8, 2020.
- ^ Gordon (2000).
- ^ Shinsengumihq.com, n.d.
- ^ National Diet Library (2008).
- ^ Kublin 1949, p. 32.
- ^ Kublin 1949, p. 31.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b Liddell, C. B. (December 14, 2013). "[Review:] Japonisme and the Rise of the Modern Art Movement: The Arts of the Meiji Period". The Japan Times. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, p. 31.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 349.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, pp. 347–348.
- ^ Cortazzi, Sir Hugh (January 16, 2014). "[Review:] Japonisme and the Rise of the Modern Art Movement: The Arts of the Meiji Period, The Khalili Collection". Japan Society of the UK. Archived from the original on August 14, 2014. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 29.
- ^ Kiyomizu Sannenzaka Museum
- ^ 第12回「創造する伝統賞」. Japan Arts Foundation.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, p. 252.
- OCLC 853452453.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, p. 254.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, p. 255.
- ^ a b Earle 1999, pp. 186–187.
- ^ Earle, Joe, "Zeshin Redux", Orientations, Vol. 29, No. 2, March, 2008, p. 136
- ^ a b Earle 1999, p. 187.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 187–188.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 185.
- ^ a b c d Earle 1999, p. 64.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 65.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 66, 70, 237, 370, 372.
- ^ a b c d Earle 1999, p. 330.
- ISBN 978-0-19-925255-8.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 331–332.
- ^ Earle 1999, p. 335.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 111, 335.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 116–117.
- ISBN 9781135786199. Retrieved April 28, 2020.
- ^ Earle 1999, pp. 117–119.
- ^ 受賞経歴 Makuzu ware Museum
- ISBN 978-4907211110
- ^ a b "Japan" in Encyclopædia Britannica (1902), Volume 29, pages 724–725.
- ^ Suda, Yevgeniya (2019). Western influences on the Japanese music in Meiji period (1868-1912) (Russian: "Западные влияния в музыкальном искусстве Японии периода Мейдзи (1868 — 1912)"). Kyiv: «Музична Україна». p. 272.
- ^ Eppstein U. (1983). The beginnings of western music in Meiji Era Japan: Thesis Ph. D. / Ury Eppstein. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University. p. 184.
- ISBN 9784756802361.
- JSTOR 40318618. Retrieved November 21, 2020.
References
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Japan: A Country Study. Federal Research Division.
- Benesch, Oleg (2018). "Castles and the Militarisation of Urban Society in Imperial Japan" (PDF). Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 28: 107–134. S2CID 158403519. Archived from the original(PDF) on November 20, 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2018.
- Earle, Joe (1999). Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. OCLC 42476594.
- Guth, Christine M. E. (2015). "The Meiji era: the ambiguities of modernization". In Jackson, Anna (ed.). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 106–111. OCLC 990574229.
- Iwao, Nagasaki (2015). "Clad in the aesthetics of tradition: from kosode to kimono". In Jackson, Anna (ed.). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 8–11. OCLC 990574229.
- Kublin, Hyman (November 1949). "The "modern" army of early meiji Japan". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 9 (1): 20–41. S2CID 162485953.
- Jackson, Anna (2015). "Dress in the Meiji period: change and continuity". In Jackson, Anna (ed.). Kimono: the art and evolution of Japanese fashion. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 112–151. OCLC 990574229.
- National Diet Library (n.d.). Osaka army arsenal (osaka hohei kosho). Retrieved August 5, 2008.
- Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge:
- Rickman, J. (2003). Sunset of the samurai. Military History. August, 42–49.
- Shinsengumihq.com, (n.d.). No sleep, no rest: Meiji law enforcement.[dead link] Retrieved August 5, 2008.
- Vos, F., et al., Meiji, Japanese Art in Transition, Ceramics, Cloisonné, Lacquer, Prints, Organized by the ISBN 90-70216-03-5
External links
- (In Japanese) Meiji Taisho 1868–1926
- National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" – historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection
- "Encouragement for Learning" by Fukuzawa Yukichi, a best-selling book of Meiji Japan (English Translation)
- Milasi, Luca. "“Tra realtà e finzione: la rivalutazione della narrativa premoderna nella critica letteraria Meiji" (" (). XXXIV CONVEGNO DI STUDI SUL GIAPPONE AISTUGIA (16-17-18 settembre 2010) Università degli studi di Napoli "L'Orientale"(Rettorato dell'Università "L'Orientale", Palazzo Du Mesnil, in via Partenope 10/A. (in Italian)
- Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, by M.C. Perry, at archive.org
- Kitahara, Michio. Commodore Perry and the Japanese: A Study in the Dramaturgy of Power, 1986
- Black Ships & Samurai Commodore Perry and the Opening of Japan (1853-1854), by John W Dower
Archives
- Lt. John T. Alderson collection of Japan photographs Archived September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. circa 1890s. 40 photographic prints (1 box) : hand colored ; sizes vary. At the University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections.