Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of
Many general and abstract topics belong to the purview of metaphysics. It investigates what
Metaphysicians employ various methods to conduct their inquiry. Traditionally, they rely on rational intuitions and abstract reasoning but have more recently also included empirical approaches associated with scientific theories. Due to the abstract nature of its topic, metaphysics has received criticisms questioning the reliability of its methods and the meaningfulness of its theories. Metaphysics is relevant to many fields of inquiry that often implicitly rely on metaphysical concepts and assumptions.
The
Definition
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, including existence, objects and their properties, possibility and necessity, space and time, change, causation, and the relation between matter and mind. It is one of the oldest branches of philosophy.[1]
The precise nature of metaphysics is disputed and its characterization has changed in the course of history. Some approaches see metaphysics as a unified field and give a wide-sweeping definition by understanding it as the study of "fundamental questions about the nature of reality" or as an inquiry into the essences of things. Another approach doubts that the different areas of metaphysics share a set of underlying features and provides instead a fine-grained characterization by listing all the main topics investigated by metaphysicians.[2] Some definitions are descriptive by providing an account of what metaphysicians actually do while others are normative and prescribe what metaphysicians ought to do.[3]
Two historically influential definitions in
Metaphysics is traditionally understood as a study of mind-independent features of reality. Starting with Immanuel Kant's critical philosophy, an alternative conception gained prominence that focuses on conceptual schemes rather than external reality. Kant distinguishes transcendent metaphysics, which aims to describe the objective features of reality beyond sense experience, from critical metaphysics, which outlines the aspects and principles underlying all human thought and experience.[7]
Metaphysics differs from the individual sciences by studying very general and abstract aspects of reality. The individual sciences, by contrast, examine more specific and concrete features and restrict themselves to certain classes of entities, such as the focus on physical things in physics, living entities in biology, and cultures in anthropology.[8] It is disputed to what extent this contrast is a strict dichotomy rather than a gradual continuum.[9]
Philosophers engaged in metaphysics are called metaphysicians or metaphysicists.[10] Outside the academic discourse, the term metaphysics is sometimes used in a different sense for the study of occult and paranormal phenomena, like metaphysical healing, auras, and the power of pyramids.[11]
The word metaphysics has its origin in the ancient Greek words metá (μετά, meaning after, above, and beyond) and phusiká (φυσικά) as a short form of ta metá ta phusiká, that is, what comes after the physics. This is frequently interpreted in the sense that metaphysics discusses topics that, due to their generality and comprehensiveness, lie beyond the realm of physics and its focus on empirical observation. It is often suggested that metaphysics got its name by a historical accident when Aristotle's book on this subject was published. Aristotle did not use the term metaphysics but his editor may have coined it for its title to indicate that this book came after the book published on physics. The term entered the English language through the Latin word metaphysica.[12]
Branches
The nature of metaphysics can also be characterized in relation to its main branches. An influential division from early
Special metaphysics considers being from more narrow perspectives and is divided into subdisciplines based on the perspective they take.
Applied metaphysics is a young subdiscipline. It belongs to applied philosophy and studies the applications of metaphysics, both within philosophy and other fields of inquiry. In ethics and philosophy of religion, it concerns topics like the ontological foundation of moral claims and religious doctrines.[19] Applications outside philosophy include the use of ontologies in artificial intelligence, economics, and sociology to classify entities[20] as well as questions in psychiatry and medicine about the metaphysical status of diseases.[21]
Meta-metaphysics[c] is the metatheory of metaphysics and investigates the nature and methods of metaphysics. It also examines how metaphysics differs from other philosophical and scientific disciplines and how it is relevant to them. While the discussions of its topics have a long history in metaphysics, it has only recently developed into a systematic field of inquiry.[23]
Topics
Existence and categories of being
Metaphysicians often see existence or being as one of the most basic and general concepts.
Another key concern in metaphysics is the division of entities into different groups based on underlying features they have in common. Theories of categories provide a system of the most fundamental kinds or the highest genera of being by establishing a comprehensive inventory of everything.[31] One of the earliest theories of categories was provided by Aristotle, who proposed a system of 10 categories. Substances (e.g. man and horse), are the most important category since all other categories like quantity (e.g. four), quality (e.g. white), and place (e.g. in Athens) are said of substances and depend on them.[32] Kant understood categories as fundamental principles underlying human understanding and developed a system of 12 categories, which are divided into the four classes quantity, quality, relation, and modality.[33] More recent theories of categories were proposed by Edmund Husserl, Samuel Alexander, Roderick Chisholm, and E. J. Lowe.[34] Many philosophers rely on the contrast between concrete and abstract objects. According to a common view, concrete objects, like rocks, trees, and human beings, exist in space and time, undergo changes, and impact each other as cause and effect, while abstract objects, like numbers and sets, exist outside space and time, are immutable, and do not enter into causal relations.[35]
Particulars
Particulars are individual entities and include both concrete objects, like Aristotle, the Eiffel Tower, or a specific apple, and abstract objects, like the number 2 or a specific set in mathematics. Also called individuals,[e] they are unique, non-repeatable entities and contrast with universals, like the color red, which can at the same time exist in several places and characterize several particulars.[37] A widely held view is that particulars instantiate universals but are not themselves instantiated by something else, meaning that they exist in themselves while universals exist in something else. Substratum theory analyzes particulars as a substratum, also called bare particular, together with various properties. The substratum confers individuality to the particular while the properties express its qualitative features or what it is like. This approach is rejected by bundle theorists, who state that particulars are only bundles of properties without an underlying substratum. Some bundle theorists include in the bundle an individual essence, called haecceity, to ensure that each bundle is unique. Another proposal for concrete particulars is that they are individuated by their space-time location.[38]
Concrete particulars encountered in everyday life, like rocks, tables, and organisms, are complex entities composed of various parts. For example, a table is made up of a tabletop and legs, each of which is itself made up of countless particles. The relation between parts and wholes is studied by mereology.[39] The problem of the many is about which groups of entities form mereological wholes, for instance, whether a dust particle on the tabletop forms part of the table. According to mereological universalists, every collection of entities forms a whole, meaning that the parts of the table without the dust particle form one whole while they together with it form a second whole. Mereological moderatists hold that certain conditions have to be fulfilled for a group of entities to compose a whole, for example, that the entities touch one another. Mereological nihilists reject the idea that there are any wholes. They deny that, strictly speaking, there is a table and talk instead of particles that are arranged table-wise.[40] A related mereological problem is whether there are simple entities that have no parts, as atomists claim, or not, as continuum theorists contend.[41]
Universals
Universals are general entities, encompassing both properties and relations, that express what particulars are like and how they resemble one another. They are repeatable, meaning that they are not limited to a unique existent but can be instantiated by different particulars at the same time. For example, the particulars Nelson Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi instantiate the universal humanity, similar to how a strawberry and a ruby instantiate the universal red.[42]
A topic discussed since ancient philosophy, the problem of universals consists in the challenge of characterizing the ontological status of universals.[43] Realists argue that universals are real, mind-independent entities that exist in addition to particulars. According to Platonic realists, universals exist also independently of particulars, which implies that the universal red would continue to exist even if there were no red things. A more moderate form of realism, inspired by Aristotle, states that universals depend on particulars, meaning that they are only real if they are instantiated. Nominalists reject the idea that universals exist in either form. For them, the world is composed exclusively of particulars. The position of conceptualists constitutes a middle ground: they state that universals exist, but only as concepts in the mind used to order experience by classifying entities.[44]
Possibility and necessity
The concepts of possibility and necessity convey what can or must be the case, expressed in statements like "it is possible to find a cure for cancer" and "it is necessary that two plus two equals four". They belong to modal metaphysics, which investigates the metaphysical principles underlying them, in particular, why it is the case that some modal statements are true while others are false.[49][g] Some metaphysicians hold that modality is a fundamental aspect of reality, meaning that besides facts about what is the case, there are additional facts about what could or must be the case.[51] A different view argues that modal truths are not about an independent aspect of reality but can be reduced to non-modal characteristics, for example, to facts about what properties or linguistic descriptions are compatible with each other or to fictional statements.[52]
Following
Space, time, and change
Space and time are dimensions that entities occupy. Spacetime realists state that space and time are fundamental aspects of reality and exist independently of the human mind. This view is rejected by spacetime idealists, who hold that space and time are constructions of the human mind in its attempt to organize and make sense of reality.[57] Spacetime absolutism or substantivalism understands spacetime as a distinct object, with some metaphysicians conceptualizing it as a box that contains all other entities within it. Spacetime relationism, by contrast, sees spacetime not as an object but as relations between objects, such as the spatial relation of being next to and the temporal relation of coming before.[58]
In the metaphysics of time, an important contrast is between the
Material objects persist through time and undergo changes in the process, like a tree that grows or loses leaves.[61] The main ways of conceptualizing persistence through time are endurantism and perdurantism. According to endurantism, material objects are three-dimensional entities that are wholly present at each moment. As they undergo changes, they gain or lose properties but remain the same otherwise. Perdurantists see material objects as four-dimensional entities that extend through time and are made up of different temporal parts. At each moment, only one part of the object is present but not the object as a whole. Change means that an earlier part is qualitatively different from a later part. For example, if a banana ripens then there is an unripe part followed by a ripe part.[62]
Causality
Causality is the relation between cause and effect whereby one entity produces or affects another entity.[63] For instance, if a person bumps a glass and spills its contents then the bump is the cause and the spill is the effect.[64] Besides the single-case causation between particulars in this example, there is also general-case causation expressed in general statements such as "smoking causes cancer".[65] The term agent causation is used if people and their actions cause something.[66] Causation is usually interpreted deterministically, meaning that a cause always brings about its effect. This view is rejected by probabilistic theories, which claim that the cause merely increases the probability that the effect occurs. This view can be used to explain that smoking causes cancer even though this is not true in every single case.[67]
The regularity theory of causation, inspired by David Hume's philosophy, states that causation is nothing but a constant conjunction in which the mind apprehends that one phenomenon, like putting one's hand in a fire, is always followed by another phenomenon, like a feeling of pain.[68] According to nomic regularity theories, the regularities take the forms of laws of nature studied by science.[69] Counterfactual theories focus not on regularities but on how effects depend on their causes. They state that effects owe their existence to the cause and would not be present without them.[70] According to primitivism, causation is a basic concept that cannot be analyzed in terms of non-causal concepts, such as regularities or dependence relations. One form of primitivism identifies causal powers inherent in entities as the underlying mechanism.[71] Eliminativists reject the above theories by holding that there is no causation.[72]
Mind and free will
Mind encompasses phenomena like
The status of free will as the ability of a person to choose their
Others
Identity is a relation that every entity has to itself as a form of sameness. It refers to numerical identity when the very same entity is involved, as in the statement "the morning star is the evening star". In a slightly different sense, it encompasses qualitative identity, also called exact similarity and indiscernibility, which is the case when two distinct entities are exactly alike, such as perfect identical twins.[80] The principle of the indiscernibility of identicals is widely accepted and holds that numerically identical entities exactly resemble one another. The converse principle, known as identity of indiscernibles, is more controversial and states that two entities are numerically identical if they exactly resemble one another.[81] Another distinction is between synchronic and diachronic identity. Synchronic identity relates an entity to itself at the same time while diachronic identity is about the same entity at different times, as in statements like "the table I bought last year is the same as the table in my dining room now".[82] Personal identity is a related topic in metaphysics that uses the term identity in a slightly different sense and concerns questions like what personhood is or what makes someone a person.[83]
Various contemporary metaphysicians rely on the concepts of truth and truthmakers to conduct their inquiry.[84] Truth is a property of linguistic statements or mental representations that are in accord with reality. A truthmaker of a statement is the entity whose existence makes the statement true.[85] For example, the statement "a tomato is red" is true because there exists a red tomato as its truthmaker.[86] Based on this observation, it is possible to pursue metaphysical research by asking what the truthmakers of statements are, with different areas of metaphysics being dedicated to different types of statements. According to this view, modal metaphysics asks what makes statements about what is possible and necessary true while the metaphysics of time is interested in the truthmakers of temporal statements about the past, present, and future.[87]
Methodology
Metaphysicians employ a variety of
A priori approaches often rely on intuitions, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.
Some approaches give less importance to a priori reasoning and see metaphysics instead as a practice continuous with the empirical sciences that generalizes their insights while making their underlying assumptions explicit. This approach is known as naturalized metaphysics and is closely associated with the work of
In addition to methods of conducting metaphysical inquiry, there are various methodological principles used to decide between competing theories by comparing their theoretical virtues.
Criticism
Despite its status as one of the main branches of philosophy, metaphysics has received numerous criticisms putting into question its status as a legitimate field of inquiry.[108] One type of criticism states that metaphysical inquiry is impossible because humans do not have the cognitive capacities needed to access the ultimate nature of reality.[109] This line of thought leads to a form of skepticism about the possibility of metaphysical knowledge. It is often followed by empiricists like Hume, who argue that there is no good source of metaphysical knowledge since metaphysics lies outside the field of empirical knowledge and relies on dubious intuitions about the realm beyond sensory experience. A closely related concern about the unreliability of metaphysical theorizing is that there a deep and lasting disagreements about metaphysical issues, indicating a lack of overall progress.[110]
Another criticism holds that the problem lies not with human cognitive abilities but with metaphysical statements themselves, which are claimed to be neither true nor false but
A slightly weaker position allows that metaphysical statements have meaning while holding that metaphysical disagreements are merely verbal disputes about different ways to describe the world. According to this view, the disagreement in the metaphysics of composition about whether there are tables or only particles arranged table-wise is a trivial debate about linguistic preferences without any substantive consequences for the nature of reality.[112] The position that metaphysical disputes have no meaning or no significant point is called metaphysical or ontological deflationism.[113] This view is opposed by serious metaphysicians, who contend that metaphysical disputes are about substantial features of the underlying structure of reality.[114] A closely related debate between ontological realists and anti-realists concerns the question of whether there are any objective facts that determine which metaphysical theories are true.[115] A different criticism, formulated by pragmatists, sees the fault of metaphysics not in its cognitive ambitions or the meaninglessness of its statements, but in its practical irrelevance and lack of usefulness.[116]
It is questionable to what extent the criticisms of metaphysics affect the discipline as a whole or only certain issues or approaches in it. For example, it could be the case that certain metaphysical disputes are merely verbal while others are substantive.[117]
Relation to other disciplines
Metaphysics is related to many fields of inquiry by investigating their basic concepts and relation to the fundamental structure of reality. For example, scientists often rely on concepts such as law of nature, causation, necessity, and spacetime to formulate their theories and predict or explain the outcomes of experiments.[118] While the main focus of scientists is on the application of these concepts to specific situations, metaphysics examines their general nature and how they depend on each other. Physicists formulate specific laws of nature, like laws of gravitation and thermodynamics, to describe how physical systems behave under various conditions. Metaphysicians, by contrast, ask what all laws of nature have in common, for example, whether they merely describe contingent regularities or express necessary relations.[119] At the same time, new scientific findings have also influenced existing and inspired new metaphysical theories. Einstein's theory of relativity, for instance, prompted various metaphysicians to conceive space and time as a unified dimension rather than as independent dimensions.[120] Empirically focused metaphysicians often rely on scientific theories to ground their theories about the nature of reality in empirical observations.[121]
Similar issues pertain to the
Metaphysics is similar to both physical cosmology and theology in its interest in the first causes and the universe as a whole. Key differences are that metaphysics relies on rational inquiry while physical cosmology gives more weight to empirical observations and theology is additionally based on divine revelation and faith-based doctrines.[124] Historically, cosmology and theology were considered subfields of metaphysics.[125]
Suggested Upper Merged Ontology | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Fundamental categories in the Suggested Upper Merged Ontology[126] |
Metaphysics in the form of ontology plays a central role in computer science to classify objects and formally represent information about them. Unlike metaphysicians, computer scientists are usually not interested in providing a single all-encompassing characterization of reality as a whole but instead employ many different ontologies, each one concerned only with a limited domain of entities.[127] For example, a college database may use an ontology with categories such as person, teacher, student, and exam to represent information about academic activities.[128] Ontologies provide standards or conceptualizations for encoding and storing information in a structured way, which makes it possible to use and transform the information by computational processes for a variety of purposes.[129] Some knowledge bases integrate information belonging to various domains, which brings with it the problem of handling data that was formulated using different ontologies. They do so by providing an upper ontology that defines concepts on a higher level of abstraction to apply to all domains. Influential upper ontologies include Suggested Upper Merged Ontology and Basic Formal Ontology.[130]
History
The history of metaphysics examines how the inquiry into the basic structure of reality has evolved in the course of history. Metaphysics has its origin in speculations about the nature and origin of the cosmos that go back to ancient civilizations.
In
Meanwhile in
Medieval Western philosophy was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy.
In the early modern period,
Many developments in the later modern period were shaped by Kant's philosophy.
In the 20th century,
See also
- Computational metaphysics
- Doctor of Metaphysics
- Enrico Berti's classification of metaphysics
- Feminist metaphysics
- Fundamental question of metaphysics
- List of metaphysicians
- Metaphysical grounding
References
Notes
- ^ For example, the metaphysical problem of causation is relevant both to epistemology, as a factor involved in perceptual knowledge, and ethics, in regard to moral responsibility for the consequences caused by one's actions.[6]
- ^ The term ontology is sometimes also used as a synonym of metaphysics as a whole.[14]
- metaontology as a synonym while others characterize metaontology as a subfield of meta-metaphysics.[22]
- ^ According to Meinong, existence is not a synonym of being: all entities have being but not all entities have existence.[28]
- ^ Some philosophers use the two terms in slightly different ways.[36]
- ^ The classified entities do not have to occur naturally and can encompass man-made products, such as synthetic chemical substances.[45]
- ^ A further topic concerns different types of modality, such as the contrast between physical, metaphysical, and logical necessity based on whether the necessity has its source in the laws of nature, the essences of things, or the laws of logic.[50]
- existential quantifiers to identify their ontological commitments.[105]
- ^ The precise date is disputed.[137]
- ^ According to traditional accounts, Laozi as the founder of Daoism lived in the 6th century BCE but other accounts state that he may have lived in the 4th or 3rd centuries BCE.[139]
- ^ The ideas underlying Samkhya philosophy arose as early as the 7th and 6th centuries BCE but it's classical and systematic formulation is dated 350 CE.[147]
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- Loux & Crisp 2017, pp. 1–2
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- Cornell, Lead Section, § 2. The Special Composition Question
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- Noonan & Curtis 2022, § 2. The Logic of Identity
- ^
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- ^
- Noonan & Curtis 2022, Lead Section
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- Korfmacher
- ^
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- ^
- Lowe 2005a, p. 926
- Imaguire 2018, p. 34
- Tallant 2017, pp. 1–4
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 15–17
- Asay 2020, p. 11
- ^ Tallant 2017, p. 1
- ^
- Tallant 2017, pp. 1–4, 163–165
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 15–17, 154
- ^
- Loux & Crisp 2017, pp. xi, 2
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 2–3
- ^
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 2–3
- Mumford 2012, § 10. What Is Metaphysics?
- Tahko 2015, pp. 151–152
- Jaksland 2023, pp. 198–199
- ^ Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 2–3
- ^ Tahko 2015, pp. 151–152, 172–173
- ^
- Mumford 2012, § 10. What Is Metaphysics?
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 2–3
- Effingham, Beebee & Goff 2010, p. 123
- Khlentzos 2021, Lead Section, § 3. The Anti-Realist Challenges to Metaphysical Realism
- ^
- Daly 2015, pp. 11–12, Introduction and Historical Overview
- Duignan 2009a
- Tahko 2015, pp. 177–180
- ^ Tahko 2015, pp. 188–190
- ^ Goldenbaum, Lead Section, § 1. The Geometrical Method
- ^
- Tahko 2015, pp. 177–178
- Brown & Fehige 2019, Lead Section
- Goffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169
- Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915–916
- ^ Kirk 2023, Lead Section, § 2. Zombies and Physicalism
- ^
- Lawson 2020, pp. 185–186
- Jaksland 2023, pp. 198–199
- ^
- Jackson 1998, pp. 28–30
- Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, p. 915
- Shaffer 2015, pp. 555–556
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- Coelho 2001, p. 128
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- Pihlström 2009, pp. 60–61
- Stern & Cheng 2023, Lead Section
- ^
- Ney 2014, pp. 30–31
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics
- Jaksland 2023, pp. 198–199
- ^
- Ney 2014, pp. 37–38, 40
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics
- ^ Ney 2014, p. 41
- ^ Ney 2014, pp. 40–41
- ^
- Ney 2014, pp. 40–43
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics
- ^
- McDaniel 2020, pp. 217–221
- Ney 2014, pp. 48–49
- Mumford 2012, § 10. What Is Metaphysics?
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, pp. 2–3
- ^
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?
- Manley 2009, pp. 1–2
- ^ van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?
- ^
- Rea 2021, pp. 211–212
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- ^
- van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, § 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?
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- ^
- Manley 2009, pp. 1–4
- Rea 2021, pp. 213–215
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- Manley 2009, pp. 4, 15, 32
- Sider 2009, pp. 386–387
- ^
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- Kriegel 2016, pp. 272–273
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- Chalmers 2009, pp. 77–78
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- ^
- Koons & Pickavance 2015, p. 5
- Macarthur 2020, p. 166
- ^ Rea 2021, pp. 215–216, 223–224
- ^
- Göhner & Schrenk, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Metaphysics of Science?
- Mumford & Tugby 2013, pp. 1–2
- Hawley 2018, pp. 187–188
- ^
- Göhner & Schrenk, § 3. Why Do We Need Metaphysics of Science?, § 4c. Laws of Nature
- Roberts 2016, pp. 337–338
- ^ Healey 2016, pp. 356–357
- ^ Hawley 2018, pp. 187–188
- ^ Hawley 2018, pp. 188–189
- ^
- Dafermos 2021, pp. 1–2, 6–7
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- Perkins 2023, Lead Section
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- Hancock 2006, p. 183
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- Perrett 2016, pp. 7–10
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- ^ Velez, § 1a. Dates
- ^
- Perrett 2016, pp. 7–10
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- Dynes 2016, p. 60
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- ^
- Littlejohn, § 5. Fundamental Concepts in the Daodejing
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- Hancock 2006, p. 183
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- Kirk 2004, pp. 308–310
- ^
- Hancock 2006, pp. 184–185
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- ^
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- ^
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 590
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- ^
- Hancock 2006, pp. 187–188
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- Grayling 2019, § Indian Philosophy
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- Hancock 2006, pp. 188–189
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- Brown, § 5. Metaphysics
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- Hancock 2006, p. 190
- Grayling 2019, § Ockham
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian Philosophy
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- ^
- Grayling 2019, § Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
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- ^
- Grayling 2019, § Indian Philosophy
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- ^
- Berthrong, Lead Section, § 4. Traits, Themes and Motifs
- Wu 2022, p. 56
- Smart 2008, p. 99
- ^
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 591
- Dehsen 2013, p. 51
- ^
- Hancock 2006, p. 190
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 591
- ^
- Hancock 2006, pp. 190–191
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 591
- Look 2020, § 4. Metaphysics: A Primer on Substance
- Menzel 2023, 1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic
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- Svare 2006, p. 15
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- Hancock 2006, p. 192
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 591
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- Morris & Brown 2023, § 3. Philosophical Project, § 5. Causation, § 6. The Idea of Necessary Connection
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- ^
- Hancock 2006, pp. 192–193
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 592
- Wood 2009, p. 354
- Loux & Crisp 2017, pp. 1–2, 6
- ^
- Hancock 2006, p. 193
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 592
- Critchley 2001, p. 31
- ^
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 592
- Green 2008, p. 172
- ^
- Hancock 2006, p. 193
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 592
- Grayling 2019, § Idealism
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- Grayling 2019, § Schopenhauer
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- ^
- ^
- Hamlyn 2005, p. 592
- Hart 1998, Lead Section
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- Hancock 2006, pp. 194–195
- Morris 2017, p. 15
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- Desmet & Irvine 2022, § 6. Metaphysics
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- Proops 2022, Lead Section
- Klement 2019, Lead Section
- Mumford 2003, p. 100
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- Hylton 2007, p. 348
- Oddie 2006, p. 170
- Parent, § 2. Lewis' Realism
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- McLean 2003, p. 550
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- Gilje & Skirbekk 2017, Derrida, Foucault, and Rorty - Deconstruction and Critique
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External links
- Metaphysics at PhilPapers
- Metaphysics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
- "Metaphysics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Metaphysics at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Metaphysics public domain audiobook at LibriVox