Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the
Meteorology,
The word meteorology is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος metéōros (meteor) and -λογία -logia (-(o)logy), meaning "the study of things high in the air".
History
Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle
Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and
Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons.[2] The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed.[3] Varāhamihira's classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD,[2] provides evidence of weather observation.
Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos.[3]
The ancient Greeks were the first to make theories about the weather. Many natural philosophers studied the weather. However, as meteorological instruments did not exist, the inquiry was largely qualitative, and could only be judged by more general theoretical speculations.[4] Herodotus states that Thales predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC. He studied Babylonian equinox tables. [5] According to Seneca, he gave the explanation that the cause of the Nile's annual floods was due to northerly winds hindering its descent by the sea.[6] Anaximander and Anaximenes thought that thunder and lightning was caused by air smashing against the cloud, thus kindling the flame. Early meteorological theories generally considered that there was a fire-like substance in the atmosphere. Anaximander defined wind as a flowing of air, but this was not generally accepted for centuries. [7] A theory to explain summer hail was first proposed by Anaxagoras. He observed that air temperature decreased with increasing height and that clouds contain moisture. He also noted that heat caused objects to rise, and therefore the heat on a summer day would drive clouds to an altitude where the moisture would freeze.[8] Empedocles theorized on the change of the seasons. He believed that fire and water opposed each other in the atmosphere, and when fire gained the upper hand, the result was summer, and when water did, it was winter. Democritus also wrote about the flooding of the Nile. He said that during the summer solstice, snow in northern parts of the world melted. This would cause vapors to form clouds, which would cause storms when driven to the Nile by northerly winds, thus filling the lakes and the Nile.[9] Hippocrates inquired into the effect of weather on health. Eudoxus claimed that bad weather followed four-year periods, according to Pliny.[10]
Aristotelian meteorology
These early observations would form the basis for
The book
- If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the Earth it is called a thunderbolt; if it is only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a meteor; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts' because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky and is then called 'smoldering lightning"; sometimes it darts quickly along and is then said to be vivid. At other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'
After Aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs, as well as On Winds. He gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year.[16] His system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the Pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. He also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. The day was divided into sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions.[17] Applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. Rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. Shooting stars and the Moon were also considered significant. However, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the Aristotelian method.[18] The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years.[19]
Meteorology after Aristotle
Meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the Renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology.
Speculation on the cause of the flooding of the Nile ended when Eratosthenes, according to Proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the Nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued.[20]
During the era of Roman Greece and Europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. In the 1st century BC, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but Posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. He closely followed Aristotle's theories. By the end of the second century BC, the center of science shifted from Athens to Alexandria, home to the ancient Library of Alexandria. In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy's Almagest dealt with meteorology, because it was considered a subset of astronomy. He gave several astrological weather predictions.[21] He constructed a map of the world divided into climatic zones by their illumination, in which the length of the Summer solstice increased by half an hour per zone between the equator and the Arctic.[22] Ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations.[23]
In 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, formalized the climatic zone system.[24] In 63–64 AD, Seneca wrote Naturales quaestiones. It was a compilation and synthesis of ancient Greek theories. However, theology was of foremost importance to Seneca, and he believed that phenomena such as lightning were tied to fate.[25] The second book(chapter) of Pliny's Natural History covers meteorology. He states that more than twenty ancient Greek authors studied meteorology. He did not make any personal contributions, and the value of his work is in preserving earlier speculation, much like Seneca's work.[26]
From 400 to 1100, scientific learning in Europe was preserved by the clergy. Isidore of Seville devoted a considerable attention to meteorology in Etymologiae, De ordine creaturum and De natura rerum. Bede the Venerable was the first Englishman to write about the weather in De Natura Rerum in 703. The work was a summary of then extant classical sources. However, Aristotle's works were largely lost until the twelfth century, including Meteorologica. Isidore and Bede were scientifically minded, but they adhered to the letter of Scripture.[27]
Islamic civilization translated many ancient works into Arabic which were transmitted and translated in western Europe to Latin.[28]
In the 9th century,
In 1021,
Adelard of Bath was one of the early translators of the classics. He also discussed meteorological topics in his Quaestiones naturales. He thought dense air produced propulsion in the form of wind. He explained thunder by saying that it was due to ice colliding in clouds, and in Summer it melted. In the thirteenth century, Aristotelian theories reestablished dominance in meteorology. For the next four centuries, meteorological work by and large was mostly commentary. It has been estimated over 156 commentaries on the Meteorologica were written before 1650.[32]
Experimental evidence was less important than appeal to the classics and authority in medieval thought. In the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation and the mathematical approach. In his Opus majus, he followed Aristotle's theory on the atmosphere being composed of water, air, and fire, supplemented by optics and geometric proofs. He noted that Ptolemy's climatic zones had to be adjusted for topography.[33]
In the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow.[36]
By the middle of the sixteenth century, meteorology had developed along two lines: theoretical science based on Meteorologica, and astrological weather forecasting. The pseudoscientific prediction by natural signs became popular and enjoyed protection of the church and princes. This was supported by scientists like Johannes Muller, Leonard Digges, and Johannes Kepler. However, there were skeptics. In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme believed that weather forecasting was possible, but that the rules for it were unknown at the time. Astrological influence in meteorology persisted until the eighteenth century.[37]
Gerolamo Cardano's De Subilitate (1550) was the first work to challenge fundamental aspects of Aristotelian theory. Cardano maintained that there were only three basic elements- earth, air, and water. He discounted fire because it needed material to spread and produced nothing. Cardano thought there were two kinds of air: free air and enclosed air. The former destroyed inanimate things and preserved animate things, while the latter had the opposite effect.[38]
Rene Descartes's Discourse on the Method (1637) typifies the beginning of the scientific revolution in meteorology. His scientific method had four principles: to never accept anything unless one clearly knew it to be true; to divide every difficult problem into small problems to tackle; to proceed from the simple to the complex, always seeking relationships; to be as complete and thorough as possible with no prejudice.[39]
In the appendix Les Meteores, he applied these principles to meteorology. He discussed terrestrial bodies and vapors which arise from them, proceeding to explain the formation of clouds from drops of water, and winds, clouds then dissolving into rain, hail and snow. He also discussed the effects of light on the rainbow. Descartes hypothesized that all bodies were composed of small particles of different shapes and interwovenness. All of his theories were based on this hypothesis. He explained the rain as caused by clouds becoming too large for the air to hold, and that clouds became snow if the air was not warm enough to melt them, or hail if they met colder wind. Like his predecessors, Descartes's method was deductive, as meteorological instruments were not developed and extensively used yet. He introduced the Cartesian coordinate system to meteorology and stressed the importance of mathematics in natural science. His work established meteorology as a legitimate branch of physics.[40]
In the 18th century, the invention of the thermometer and barometer allowed for more accurate measurements of temperature and pressure, leading to a better understanding of atmospheric processes. This century also saw the birth of the first meteorological society, the Societas Meteorologica Palatina in 1780.[41]
In the 19th century, advances in technology such as the telegraph and photography led to the creation of weather observing networks and the ability to track storms. Additionally, scientists began to use mathematical models to make predictions about the weather. The 20th century saw the development of radar and satellite technology, which greatly improved the ability to observe and track weather systems. In addition, meteorologists and atmospheric scientists started to create the first weather forecasts and temperature predictions.[42]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the advent of computer models and big data, meteorology has become increasingly dependent on numerical methods and computer simulations. This has greatly improved weather forecasting and climate predictions. Additionally, meteorology has expanded to include other areas such as air quality, atmospheric chemistry, and climatology. The advancement in observational, theoretical and computational technologies has enabled ever more accurate weather predictions and understanding of weather pattern and air pollution. In current time, with the advancement in weather forecasting and satellite technology, meteorology has become an integral part of everyday life, and is used for many purposes such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster management.[citation needed]
Instruments and classification scales
In 1441,
Atmospheric composition research
In 1648,
Research into cyclones and air flow
In 1494,
Observation networks and weather forecasting
In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the
During the
This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the
FitzRoy coined the term "weather forecast" and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.[73]
Over the next 50 years, many countries established national meteorological services. The
Numerical weather prediction
In 1904, Norwegian scientist
It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern
Starting in the 1950s,
In the 1960s, the
Meteorologists
Meteorologists are scientists who study and work in the field of meteorology.
Although weather forecasts and warnings are the best known products of meteorologists for the public,
Equipment
Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be seen but can be felt. The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the rain gauge, the anemometer, and the hygrometer. Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. Many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. Even Aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air.
Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a
Spatial scales
The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales. At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the
Other subclassifications are used to describe the unique, local, or broad effects within those subclasses.
Type of motion | Horizontal scale (meter) |
---|---|
Molecular mean free path | 10−7 |
Minute turbulent eddies | 10−2 – 10−1 |
Small eddies | 10−1 – 1 |
Dust devils | 1–10 |
Gusts | 10 – 102 |
Tornadoes | 102 |
Cumulonimbus clouds | 103 |
Fronts, squall lines | 104 – 105 |
Hurricanes | 105 |
Synoptic Cyclones | 106 |
Planetary waves | 107 |
Microscale
Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena on a scale of about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) or less. Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence caused by buildings and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this scale.[93]
Mesoscale
Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere,
Synoptic scale
Synoptic scale meteorology predicts atmospheric changes at scales up to 1000 km and 105 sec (28 days), in time and space. At the synoptic scale, the
Global scale
Global scale meteorology is the study of weather patterns related to the transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Very large scale oscillations are of importance at this scale. These oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months, such as the Madden–Julian oscillation, or years, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation. Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology. The traditional definition of climate is pushed into larger timescales and with the understanding of the longer time scale global oscillations, their effect on climate and weather disturbances can be included in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales predictions.
Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding air–sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes.
Some meteorological principles
Boundary layer meteorology
Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – cause turbulent mixing within the air layer. Significant movement of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions.[97] Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.
Dynamic meteorology
Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the
Applications
Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the
Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition,[101][102] forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.[103][104][105]
There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.
Aviation meteorology
Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management.[114] It is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the Aeronautical Information Manual:[115]
The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.[116]
Agricultural meteorology
Meteorologists, soil scientists, agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water-use efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather.[117]
Hydrometeorology
The multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard- and software platforms and use different data formats. There are some initiatives – such as the DRIHM project[120] – that are trying to address this issue.[121]
Nuclear meteorology
Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of
Maritime meteorology
Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at sea. Organizations such as the Ocean Prediction Center, Honolulu National Weather Service forecast office, United Kingdom Met Office, KNMI and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the world's oceans.
Military meteorology
Military meteorology is the research and application of meteorology for
Environmental meteorology
Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions.
Renewable energy
Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes basic research, "exploration," and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar energy.
See also
- Aerography
- American Practical Navigator
- Atmospheric circulation
- Atmospheric layers
- Atmospheric models
- Atmospheric pressure
- Atmospheric thermodynamics
- Automated airport weather station
- Cloud
- Eddy covariance flux (eddy correlation, eddy flux)
- El Niño–Southern Oscillation
- Index of meteorology articles
- Indigenous Australian seasons
- List of cloud types
- List of meteorology institutions
- List of Russian meteorologists
- List of weather instruments
- Madden–Julian oscillation
- Meteorological winter
- National Weatherperson's Day
- Precipitation
- ROFOR
- Space weather
- Walker circulation
- Weather station
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- ^ Mader, Terry (3 April 2000). "Drought Corn Silage". beef.unl.edu. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ Taylor, Kathryn C. (March 2005). "Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care". pubs.caes.uga.edu. University of Georgia. Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ "After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop". The New York Times. Associated Press. 14 January 1991. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ "FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels". The New York Times. Reuters. 26 February 1993. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
- ^ "Heatwave causes electricity surge". BBC News. 25 July 2006. Archived from the original on 20 May 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
- ^ "The seven key messages of the Energy Drill program" (PDF). tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill. Toronto Catholic District School Board. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
- ISBN 9780850451634.
- ^ An international version called the Aeronautical Information Publication contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community.
- ^ "Aeronautical Information Manual, Section 1. Meteorology: 7-1-21. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing". AIM Online. Federal Aviation Administration, Dept. of Transportation. 16 July 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
- ISSN 0168-1923.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ About the HPC, NOAA/ National Weather Service, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007.
- ^ "Home". Archived from the original on 6 August 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ^ DRIHM News, number 1, March 2012, p2 Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "An ideal environment for hydro-meteorology research at the European level"
- S2CID 96128061.
Further reading
- Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
- Garret, J.R. (1992) [1992]. The atmospheric boundary layer. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38052-2.
- Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society (2nd ed.). Allen Press. 2000.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - Bluestein, H (1992) [1992]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-506267-0.
- Bluestein, H (1993) [1993]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506268-7.
- Reynolds, R (2005) [2005]. Guide to Weather. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books Inc. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-55407-110-4.
- Holton, J.R. (2004) [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (4th ed.). Burlington, Md: Elsevier Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-354015-7. Archived from the originalon 19 July 2013. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
- Roulstone, Ian & Norbury, John (2013). Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691152721.
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
- Glickman, Todd S. (June 2000). Meteorology Glossary (electronic) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.
- Gustavo Herrera, Roberto; García-Herrera, Ricardo; Prieto, Luis; Gallego, David; Hernández, Emiliano; Gimeno, Luis; Können, Gunther; Koek, Frits; Wheeler, Dennis; Wilkinson, Clive; Del Rosario Prieto, Maria; Báez, Carlos; Woodruff, Scott. A Dictionary of Nautical Meteorological Terms: CLIWOC Multilingual Dictionary of Meteorological Terms; An English/Spanish/French/Dutch Dictionary of Windforce Terms Used by Mariners from 1750 to 1850 (PDF). CLIWOC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
- "Meteorology Encyclopedia". Central Weather Bureau. 6 December 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
History
- Lawrence-Mathers, Anne (2020). Medieval Meteorology: Forecasting the Weather from Aristotle to the Almanac. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. S2CID 211658964.
External links
Please see weather forecasting for weather forecast sites.
- Air Quality Meteorology – Online course that introduces the basic concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models. Written at a bachelor's degree level.
- The GLOBE Program – (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international environmental science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about the environment through student data collection and observation.
- Glossary of Meteorology – From the American Meteorological Society, an excellent reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more advanced reader.
- JetStream – An Online School for Weather – National Weather Service
- Learn About Meteorology – Australian Bureau of Meteorology
- The Weather Guide Archived 24 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Weather Tutorials and News at About.com
- Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd) – The COMET Program
- NOAA Central Library – National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
- The World Weather 2010 Project Archived 19 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
- Ogimet – online data from meteorological stations of the world, obtained through NOAA free services
- National Center for Atmospheric Research Archives, documents the history of meteorology
- Weather forecasting and Climate science – United Kingdom Meteorological Office
- Meteorology, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vladimir Janković, Richard Hambyn and Iba Taub (In Our Time, 6 March 2003)
- Virtual exhibition about meteorology on the digital library of Paris Observatory