Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday Hampton Court, Middlesex , England | |
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Known for | See list |
Spouse |
Sarah Barnard (m. 1821) |
Awards |
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Scientific career | |
Fields | |
Institutions | Royal Institution |
Signature | |
Michael Faraday FRS (/ˈfærədeɪ, -di/; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. Although Faraday received little formal education, as a self-made man, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.[1] It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[2][3] He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.[4]
As a chemist, Faraday discovered
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Arthur Schopenhauer and James Clerk Maxwell.[6] Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated, "When we consider the magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time."[1]
Biography
Early life
Michael Faraday was born on 22 September 1791 in Newington Butts,[7] Surrey (which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark).[8] His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Glasite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife, Margaret (née Hastwell),[9] and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith.[10] Michael was born in the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, having only the most basic school education, had to educate himself.[11]
At the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.[12] During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Watts's The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein.[13] During this period, Faraday held discussions with his peers in the City Philosophical Society where he attended lectures about various scientific topics.[14] He also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet.[15][16]
Adult life
In 1812, at the age of 20 and at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and the Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as an assistant. Coincidentally one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked and Sir Humphry Davy had been asked to find a replacement; thus he appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813.[2] Very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance.[17]
Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800–1879) on 12 June 1821.
Faraday was a devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. Well after his marriage, he served as deacon and for two terms as an elder in the meeting house of his youth. His church was located at Paul's Alley in the Barbican. This meeting house relocated in 1862 to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this North London location was where Faraday served the final two years of his second term as elder prior to his resignation from that post.[19][20] Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."[21]
Later life
In June 1832, the
In 1832, Faraday was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[25] He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1838. In 1840, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.[26] He was one of eight foreign members elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1844.[27] In 1849 he was elected as associated member to the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, which two years later became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and he was subsequently made foreign member.[28]
Faraday had a
Having provided a number of various service projects for the British government, when asked by the government to advise on the production of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (1853–1856), Faraday refused to participate, citing ethical reasons.[31]
Faraday died at his house at
Scientific achievements
Chemistry
Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to
Faraday invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is still in practical use in science laboratories around the world as a convenient source of heat.[37][38] Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen) and liquefying gases such as chlorine. The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation. In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and CCl4, and published his results the following year.[39][40][41] Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.[42][43] Faraday is also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularizing terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large part by William Whewell.[44]
Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic
Electricity and magnetism
Faraday is best known for his work on electricity and magnetism. His first recorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven British halfpenny coins, stacked together with seven discs of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulfate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812).
In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design an electric motor.[3] Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called "electromagnetic rotation". One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. These experiments and inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. In his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his work with either Wollaston or Davy. The resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and may well have contributed to Faraday's assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research for several years.[47][48]
From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials and developing requisite experience. In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship.[49] This experiment followed similar work conducted with light and magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results.[50][51] During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass, borosilicate of lead,[52] which he used in his future studies connecting light with magnetism.[53] In his spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental work on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism.[54] Two years after the death of Davy, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction, recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October 1831 he was; "making many experiments with the great magnet of the Royal Society".[55]
Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that, upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.
In 1832, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used "
Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor.[57] This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition by the scientific community. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields; that conceptual model was crucial for the successful development of the electromechanical devices that dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.[citation needed]
Diamagnetism
In 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field: an effect he termed diamagnetism.[60]
Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned with the direction in which the light is moving. This is now termed the Faraday effect.[57] In Sept 1845 he wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light".[61]
Later on in his life, in 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper[62] and his Nobel acceptance speech,[63] Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work.
Faraday cage
In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields emanating from them cancel one another. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.[57] In January 1836, Faraday had put a wooden frame, 12 ft square, on four glass supports and added paper walls and wire mesh. He then stepped inside and electrified it. When he stepped out of his electrified cage, Faraday had shown that electricity was a force, not an imponderable fluid as was believed at the time.[4]
Royal Institution and public service
Faraday had a long association with the
Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the
As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse where he carried out the first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses.[67]
Faraday was also active in what would now be called
Faraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the
Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures for the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818 in order to refine the quality of his lectures.[76]
Between 1827 and 1860 at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for young people, a series which continues today. The objective of the lectures was to present science to the general public in the hopes of inspiring them and generating revenue for the Royal Institution. They were notable events on the social calendar among London's gentry. Over the course of several letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Faraday outlined his recommendations on the art of lecturing, writing "a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end".[77] His lectures were joyful and juvenile, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with various gasses (in order to determine whether or not they are magnetic), but the lectures were also deeply philosophical. In his lectures he urged his audiences to consider the mechanics of his experiments: "you know very well that ice floats upon water ... Why does the ice float? Think of that, and philosophise".[78] The subjects in his lectures consisted of Chemistry and Electricity, and included: 1841: The Rudiments of Chemistry, 1843: First Principles of Electricity, 1848: The Chemical History of a Candle, 1851: Attractive Forces, 1853: Voltaic Electricity, 1854: The Chemistry of Combustion, 1855: The Distinctive Properties of the Common Metals, 1857: Static Electricity, 1858: The Metallic Properties, 1859: The Various Forces of Matter and their Relations to Each Other.[79]
Commemorations
A statue of Michael Faraday stands in
A building at
Without such freedom there would have been no Shakespeare, no Goethe, no Newton, no Faraday, no Pasteur and no Lister.
—Albert Einstein's speech on intellectual freedom at the Royal Albert Hall, London having fled Nazi Germany, 3 October 1933[83]
Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London,
A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street in London's Marylebone district.[87] From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England. He was portrayed conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus.[88] In 2002, Faraday was ranked number 22 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[89]
Faraday has been commemorated on postage stamps issued by the
The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion derives its name from the scientist, who saw his faith as integral to his scientific research. The logo of the institute is also based on Faraday's discoveries. It was created in 2006 by a $2,000,000 grant from the John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic research, to foster understanding of the interaction between science and religion, and to engage public understanding in both these subject areas.[92][93]
The Faraday Institution, an independent energy storage research institute established in 2017, also derives its name from Michael Faraday.[94] The organisation serves as the UK's primary research programme to advance battery science and technology, education, public engagement and market research.[94]
Faraday's life and contributions to electromagnetics was the principal topic of the tenth episode, titled "
Aldous Huxley wrote about Faraday in an essay entitled, A Night in Pietramala: "He is always the natural philosopher. To discover truth is his sole aim and interest ... even if I could be Shakespeare, I think I should still choose to be Faraday."[96] Calling Faraday her "hero", in a speech to the Royal Society, Margaret Thatcher declared: "The value of his work must be higher than the capitalisation of all the shares on the Stock Exchange!" She borrowed his bust from the Royal Institution and had it placed in the hall of 10 Downing Street.[4]
Awards named in Faraday's honour
In honor and remembrance of his great scientific contributions, several institutions have created prizes and awards in his name. This include:
- The Faraday Medal[97]
- The Royal Society of London Michael Faraday Prize[98]
- The Institute of Physics Michael Faraday Medal and Prize[99]
- The Royal Society of Chemistry Faraday Lectureship Prize[100]
Gallery
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Portrait of young Michael Faraday, c. 1826
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Michael Faraday in his laboratory, c. 1850s
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Michael Faraday's study at the Royal Institution
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Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution
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Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours
Bibliography
Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures.[101] Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813–1815.
- Faraday, Michael (1827). Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry. John Murray. 2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842
- Faraday, Michael (1839). Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii. Richard and John Edward Taylor.; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855
- Faraday, Michael (1859). Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-85066-841-4.
- Faraday, Michael (1861). W. Crookes (ed.). A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle. Griffin, Bohn & Co. ISBN 978-1-4255-1974-2.
- Faraday, Michael (1873). W. Crookes (ed.). On the Various Forces in Nature. Chatto and Windus.
- Faraday, Michael (1932–1936). T. Martin (ed.). Diary. G. Bell. ISBN 978-0-7135-0439-2. – published in eight volumes; see also the 2009 publicationof Faraday's diary
- Faraday, Michael (1991). B. Bowers and L. Symons (ed.). Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813–1815. Institution of Electrical Engineers.
- Faraday, Michael (1991). F.A.J.L. James (ed.). The Correspondence of Michael Faraday. Vol. 1. INSPEC, Inc. ISBN 978-0-86341-248-6. – volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999
- Faraday, Michael (2008). Alice Jenkins (ed.). Michael Faraday's Mental Exercises: An Artisan Essay Circle in Regency London. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
- Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London; Glasgow: R. Griffin, 1860.
- The Liquefaction of Gases, Edinburgh: W.F. Clay, 1896.
- The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899. (Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf)
See also
- Faraday (unit)– Physical constant: Electric charge of one mole of electrons
- Forensic engineering – Investigation of failures associated with legal intervention
- Nikola Tesla – Serbian-American inventor (1856–1943)
- Timeline of hydrogen technologies
- Timeline of low-temperature technology
- Zeeman effect – Spectral line splitting in magnetic field
References
- ^ ISBN 81-7371-250-6. p. 281.
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 173–175. the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ a b c d "Archives Michael Faraday biography – The IET". theiet.org.
- ^ a b c "The Faraday cage: from Victorian experiment to Snowden-era paranoia". The Guardian. 22 May 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-486-49561-3.
- ^ Reiser, Anton (1930). "VI". Albert Einstein: A Biographical Portrait. New York: Albert and Charles Boni. p. 194.
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9153. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ For a concise account of Faraday's life including his childhood, see pp. 175–183 of Every Saturday: A Journal of Choice Reading, Vol III published at Cambridge in 1873 by Osgood & Co.
- ISBN 3734011124. p. 11.
- ^ The implication is that James discovered job opportunities elsewhere through membership of this sect. James joined the London meeting house on 20 February 1791, and moved his family shortly thereafter. See Cantor, pp. 57–58.
- ^ "Answers about Michael Faraday". Answers. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
- ^ Plaque #19 on Open Plaques
- ISBN 978-1846311406.
- JSTOR 41378130.
- ^ Lienhard, John H. (1992). "Michael Faraday". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Episode 741. NPR. KUHF-FM Houston. No 741: Michael Faraday (transcript).
- ^ Lienhard, John H. (1992). "Jane Marcet's Books". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Episode 744. NPR. KUHF-FM Houston. No 744: Jane Marcet's Books (transcript).
- ^ Thomas, p. 17
- St. Paul's Cathedral, records 12 June as the date their licence was issued. The witness was Sarah's father, Edward. Their marriage was 16 years prior to the Marriage and Registration Act of 1837. See Cantor, p. 59.
- ^ Cantor, pp. 41–43, 60–64, and 277–280.
- ^ Paul's Alley was located 10 houses south of the Barbican. See p. 330 Elmes's (1831) Topographical Dictionary of the British Metropolis.
- ^ Baggott, Jim (2 September 1991). "The myth of Michael Faraday: Michael Faraday was not just one of Britain's greatest experimenters. A closer look at the man and his work reveals that he was also a clever theoretician". New Scientist. Retrieved 6 September 2008.
- ISBN 1-4777-2722-1. p. 81.
- ^ Todd Timmons (2012). "Makers of Western Science: The Works and Words of 24 Visionaries from Copernicus to Watson and Crick". p. 127.
- ^ "Faraday appointed first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry". The Royal Institution. 16 October 2017. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
- ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter F" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 159. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
- Macmillan and Company. p. 53.
Faraday French Academy.
- ^ "M. Faraday (1791–1867)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
- ISBN 0-941901-12-2. p. 30.
- ^ Twickenham Museum on Faraday and Faraday House; accessed 14 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-85109-490-5.
- ^ Plaque #2429 on Open Plaques
- ^ 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p. 59: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966
- ^ Remarkable Physicists: From Galileo to Yukawa. Cambridge University Press. 2004. pp. 118–119.
- .
- ^ Akerlof, Carl W. "Faraday Rotation" (PDF). Retrieved 29 November 2023.
- doi:10.1021/ed082p518. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 May 2005.
- ^ Faraday (1827), p. 127.
- S2CID 186212922.
- ISBN 978-0-85066-841-4.
- ISBN 978-0-306-80299-7.
- ^ Faraday, Michael (1823). "On Hydrate of Chlorine". Quarterly Journal of Science. 15: 71.
- ISBN 978-0-85066-841-4.
- .
- ^ "The Birth of Nanotechnology". Nanogallery.info. 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2007.
Faraday made some attempt to explain what was causing the vivid coloration in his gold mixtures, saying that known phenomena seemed to indicate that a mere variation in the size of gold particles gave rise to a variety of resultant colors.
- ISBN 978-0-486-43505-3. See plate 4.
- ^ Hamilton, pp. 165–171, 183, 187–190.
- ^ Cantor, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Thompson, p. 95.
- ^ Thompson, p. 91. This lab entry illustrates Faraday's quest for the connection between light and electromagnetic phenomenon 10 September 1821.
- ^ Cantor, p. 233.
- ^ Thompson, pp. 95–98.
- ^ Thompson, p. 100.
- ^ Faraday's initial induction lab work occurred in late November 1825. His work was heavily influenced by the ongoing research of fellow European scientists Ampere, Arago, and Oersted as indicated by his diary entries. Cantor, pp. 235–244.
- ISBN 0-521-33768-2. p. 212.
- ISBN 0-7906-1041-8. pp. 4–91.
- ^ a b c d Lives and Times of Great Pioneers in Chemistry (lavoisier to Sanger). World Scientific. 2015. pp. 85, 86.
- ^ "Michael Faraday's generator". The Royal Institution. 15 October 2017.
- ^ "Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857". National Portrait Gallery, UK: NPR.
- ISBN 0-19-161446-7. p. 81.
- ISBN 0-7503-0570-3. p. 125.
- doi:10.1038/055347a0.
- ^ "Pieter Zeeman, Nobel Lecture". Retrieved 29 May 2008.
- ^ a b "Michael Faraday (1791–1867)". The Royal Institution. Retrieved 20 February 2014.
- ^ Jones, Roger (2009). What's Who?: A Dictionary of Things Named After People and the People They are Named After. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 74.
- ^ a b c "Causes of accidental explosions in the 19th century". The Royal Institution. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ISBN 0-7277-2876-8, p. 236.
- ^ Faraday, Michael (9 July 1855). "The State of the Thames", The Times. p. 8.
- ^ The Correspondence of Michael Faraday: 1849–1855, Volume 4. IET. 1991. p. xxxvii.
- ^ "No. 21950". The London Gazette. 16 December 1856. p. 4219.
- ^ Thomas, p. 83
- ^ Royal Institution of Great Britain; Whewell, William; Faraday, Michael; Latham, Robert Gordon; Daubeny, Charles; Tyndall, John; Paget, James; Hodgson, William Ballantyne; Lankester, E. Ray (Edwin Ray) (1917). Science and education; lectures delivered at the Royal institution of Great Britain. Library of Congress. W. Heinemann. pp. 39–74 [51].
- ^ Faraday, Michael (2 July 1853). "Table-turning". The Illustrated London News. p. 530.
- ^ Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (1898). Michael Faraday; his life and work. Cornell University Library. London, Cassell. pp. 250–252.
- ISBN 978-0-86341-251-6.
- .
- ISBN 0-8027-1470-6
- .
- ^ "History of the Christmas Lectures". The Royal Institution. Archived from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
- ISBN 1-4081-5583-4. p. 231.
- ^ Michael Faraday Primary School Archived 29 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. michaelfaradayschool.co.uk
- ^ "History of Faraday (Station F)". British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
- ^ "3 October 1933 – Albert Einstein presents his final speech given in Europe, at the Royal Albert Hall". Royal Albert Hall. 15 October 2017.
- ^ McNamara, John (1991). History in Asphalt. Harrison, NY: Harbor Hill Books. p. 99. ISBN 0-941980-15-4.
- ^ "Sir Andrew Clarke (1824–1902)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ "The Faraday Centre". Faradaycentre.org. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ "Faraday, Michael (1791–1867)". English Heritage. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "BBC – Great Britons – Top 100". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 4 December 2002. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ^ "'Scientific achievements' postage stamps". Museum of Applied Sciences collection. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ "Issue: World Changers (21.09.1999)". BFDC. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ "Faraday Institute for Science and Religion: Interdisciplinary Research and Projects". templeton.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
- ^ About us Archived 13 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Faraday Institute
- ^ a b "The Faraday Institution". The Faraday Institution. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (4 March 2014). "A Successor to Sagan Reboots 'Cosmos'". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
- ^ Huxley, Aldous (1925). A Night in Pietramala. In: Along the Road: Notes and Essays of a Tourist. New York: George H. Doran.
- ^ "IET Faraday Medal". St John's College Cambridge. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
- ^ "Michael Faraday Prize and Lecture | Royal Society". royalsociety.org. 30 November 2023.
- ^ "Gold Medals". Gold Medals | Institute of Physics.
- ^ "RSC Faraday Lectureship Prize". www.rsc.org.
- ^ Hamilton, p. 220
Sources
- Cantor, Geoffrey (1991). Michael Faraday, Sandemanian and Scientist. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-58802-4.
- Hamilton, James (2004). A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution. New York: ISBN 978-1-4000-6016-0.
- Thomas, J.M. (1991). Michael Faraday and The Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place (PBK). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-7503-0145-9.
- Thompson, Silvanus (1901). Michael Faraday, His Life and Work. London: ISBN 978-1-4179-7036-0.
Further reading
Biographies
- ISBN 978-0226010465.
- Ames, Joseph Sweetman (Ed.) (c. 1900). The Discovery of Induced Electric Currents. Vol. 2. New York: American Book Company (1890).
- Bence Jones, Henry (1870). The Life and Letters of Faraday. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott and Company.
Faraday.
- The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931). Faraday. Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark, Ltd.
- Gladstone, J.H. (1872). Michael Faraday. London: Macmillan.
Faraday.
- ISBN 978-0-333-39320-8.
- ISBN 978-1-57392-556-3.
- ISBN 978-0-86341-255-4.
- Hamilton, James (2002). Faraday: The Life. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-716376-2.
- Hirshfeld, Alan W. (2006). The Electric Life of Michael Faraday. ISBN 978-0-8027-1470-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-511763-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7503-0145-9.
- Tyndall, John (1868). Faraday as a Discoverer. London: Longmans, Green, and Company.
- Williams, L. Pearce (1965). Michael Faraday: A Biography. New York: Basic Books.
External links
Biographies
- Biography at The Royal Institution of Great Britain
- Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (downloads)
- The Christian Character of Michael Faraday
- The Life and Discoveries of Michael Faraday by J. A. Crowther, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920
Others
- Works by Michael Faraday at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Michael Faraday at Internet Archive
- Works by Michael Faraday at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Complete Correspondence of Michael Faraday Searchable full texts of all letters to and from Faraday, based on the standard edition by Frank James
- Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday
- The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters (1899) full download PDF
- Faraday School, located on Trinity Buoy Wharf at the New Model School Company Limited's website
- "Profiles in Chemistry: Michael Faraday" on Chemical Heritage Foundation