Mikhail Bakunin
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Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin
Bakunin grew up in
In 1868, Bakunin joined the
Bakunin is remembered as a major figure in the history of anarchism, an opponent of
Life
Early life
On 30 May [
Bakunin lived a bohemian, intellectual life in Moscow, where
In Berlin, Bakunin gravitated towards the Young Hegelians, an intellectual group with radical interpretations of Hegel's philosophy,[12] and who drew Bakunin to political topics.[14] He left Berlin in early 1842 for Dresden and met the Hegelian Arnold Ruge,[14] who published Bakunin's first original publication. German: Die Reaktion in Deutschland ("The Reaction in Germany") proposes a continuation of the French Revolution to the rest of Europe and Russia.[12] Though steeped in Hegelian jargon and published under a pseudonym, it marked Bakunin's transition from philosophy to revolutionary rhetoric.[14]
Revolutionary activity and imprisonment
Throughout the 1840s, Bakunin grew into revolutionary agitation.
When the French King
After participating in both the Prague uprising and the
Back in Europe
In London, Bakunin reunited with Herzen and Ogarev. Bakunin collaborated with them on their Russian-language newspaper but his revolutionary fervor exceeded their moderate reform agenda. Bakunin's 1862 pamphlet The People's Cause: Romanov, Pugachev, or Pestel? criticized the Russian tsar for not using his position to facilitate a bloodless revolution and forgo another Pugachev's Rebellion. In early August 1862, he briefly travelled to Paris.[21] In Paris at this time, famous photographer Nadar took three famous photographs of him on August 7, 1862. After being photographed, he also signed Nadar's Livre d'Or (autograph albume), wrote that (leaf 161): "Watch out that liberty doesn't come to you from the north."[22][23] In 1863, Bakunin joined in an unsuccessful effort to supply armed men for the Polish January Uprising against Russia. Bakunin, reunited with his wife, moved to Italy the next year, where they stayed for three years.[19]
Bakunin, in his early 50s, developed his core anarchist thoughts in Italy. He continued to refine these ideas in his remaining 12 years. Among this ideology was the first of many conspiratorial revolutionary societies, though none of these participated in revolutionary actions, chiefly the revolutionary toppling of the state, to be replaced by free federation between voluntarily associated economic producers.[19]
He moved to Switzerland in 1867, a more permissive environment for revolutionary literature. Bakunin's anarchist writings were fragmentary and prolific.[19] With France's collapse in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, Bakunin traveled to Lyon and participated in the fruitless Lyon Commune in which the citizens briefly occupied the city hall. Bakunin retreated to Switzerland.[24]
In Switzerland, the Russian revolutionary Sergey Nechayev sought out Bakunin for a collaboration. Not knowing Nechayev's past betrayals, Bakunin warmed to Nechayev's revolutionary zeal and they together produced the 1869 Catechism of the Revolutionary, a tract that endorsed an ascetic life for revolutionaries without societal or moral bonds. Bakunin's connection with Nechayev hurt the former's reputation. More recent scholarship, however, challenges the catechism's authorship, crediting Nechayev as the primary or sole author. Bakunin ultimately disavowed their connection.[25]
First International
While Bakunin encountered
Marx had Bakunin and Bakunist anarchists ejected from the First International's 1872 Hague Congress. This breaking point split the Marxist socialist movement from the anarchist movement and led to the undoing of the International. Bakunin's ideas continued to spread nevertheless to the labor movement in Spain and the watchmakers of the Swiss Jura Federation.[27]
Bakunin wrote his last major work, Statism and Anarchy (1873), anonymously in Russian to stir underground revolution in Russia. It restates his anarchist position, establishes the German Empire as the foremost centralized state in opposition to European anarchism, likens Marx to German authoritarianism, and warns of Marx's dictatorship of the proletariat being led by autocrats for their own gain in the name of the proletariat. This premonition furthered the gulf between the Marxists and Bakunist anarchists.[27]
In one final revolutionary act, Bakunin planned the unsuccessful 1874 Bologna insurrection with his Italian followers. Its failure was a major setback to the Italian anarchist movement. Bakunin retreated to Switzerland,[28] where he retired, dying in Bern on 1 July 1876.[29]
Thought
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"The passion for destruction is also a creative passion."[12]
Much of Bakunin's writings on anarchism centres on antipathy for the state and "political organization itself as the source of oppression and exploitation". His revolutionary solutions focus on undoing the state and hierarchical religious, social, and economic institutions, to be replaced by a system of freely federated communes organized "from below upward" with voluntary associations of economic producers, starting locally but ostensibly organizing internationally. These thoughts were first published in his unfinished 1871 The Knouto-Germanic Empire and the Social Revolution, expanded by a second part published in his 1908 Oeuvres, and again elaborated a fragment found and published posthumously as God and the State (1882). The latter was his most famous work, translated widely. It appeals to cast off both the state and religion to realize man's inborn freedom.[19]
As a writer, Bakunin was prolific yet fragmented. He was prone to large digressions and rarely completed what he set out to address. As a result, much of his writings on anarchism do not cohere and were published only posthumously. He wrote mainly in French.[19]
Bakunin's political beliefs rejected statist and hierarchical systems of power in every name and shape, from the idea of God downwards, and every form of hierarchical authority, whether emanating from the will of a sovereign or even from a state that allowed universal suffrage. He wrote in God and the State that "[t]he liberty of man consists solely in this, that he obeys the laws of nature because he has himself recognized them as such, and not because they have been imposed upon him externally by any foreign will whatsoever, human or divine, collective or individual".[30]
Bakunin similarly rejected the notion of any privileged position or class, since the social and economic inequality implied by class systems were incompatible with individual freedom. Whereas
Authority and freethought
In his 1870 essay What is Authority?, Bakunin wrote:
Does it follow that I reject all authority? Far from me such a thought. In the matter of boots, I refer to the authority of the bootmaker; concerning houses, canals, or railroads, I consult that of the architect or the engineer. For such or such special knowledge I apply to such or such a savant. But I allow neither the bootmaker nor the architect nor savant to impose his authority upon me. I listen to them freely and with all the respect merited by their intelligence, their character, their knowledge, reserving always my incontestable right of criticism and censure. I do not content myself with consulting a single authority in any special branch; I consult several; I compare their opinions, and choose that which seems to me the soundest. But I recognise no infallible authority, even in special questions; consequently, whatever respect I may have for the honesty and the sincerity of such or such individual, I have no absolute faith in any person.[32]
According to Bakunin:
Therefore there is no fixed and constant authority, but a continual exchange of mutual, temporary, and, above all, voluntary authority and subordination. This same reason forbids me, then, to recognise a fixed, constant and universal authority, because there is no universal man, no man capable of grasping in all that wealth of detail, without which the application of science to life is impossible, all the sciences, all the branches of social life".[32]
Anti-theologism
According to political philosopher Carl Schmitt, a prominent member of the Nazi Party, "in comparison with later anarchists, Proudhon was a moralistic petit bourgeois who continued to subscribe to the authority of the father and the principle of the monogamous family. Bakunin was the first to give the struggle against theology the complete consistency of an absolute naturalism. [...] For him, therefore, there was nothing negative and evil except the theological doctrine of God and sin, which stamps man as a villain in order to provide a pretext for domination and the hunger for power."[33]
Bakunin believed that religion originated from the human ability for abstract thought and fantasy.
Bakunin argued that oppressors receive authority from religion. Religious people are in many cases obedient to the
Bakunin argued in his book
Class struggle strategy for social revolution
Bakunin's methods of realizing his revolutionary program were consistent with his principles. The working class and peasantry were to organize from below through local structures federated with each other, "creating not only the ideas, but also the facts of the future itself."[39] Their movements would prefigure the future in their ideas and practices, creating the building blocks of the new society. This approach was exemplified by syndicalism, an anarchist strategy championed by Bakunin, according to which trade unions would provide both the means to defend and improve workers' conditions, rights and incomes in the present, and the basis for a social revolution based upon workplace occupations. The syndicalist unions would organize the occupations as well as provide the radically democratic structures through which workplaces would be self-managed, and the larger economy coordinated. Thus, for Bakunin, the workers' unions would "take possession of all the tools of production as well as buildings and capital."[40]
Nevertheless, Bakunin did not reduce the revolution to syndicalist unions, stressing the need to organize working-class neighbourhoods as well as the unemployed. Meanwhile, the peasants were to "take the land and throw out those landlords who live by the labor of others".
Collectivist anarchism
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Libertarian socialism |
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Bakunin's socialism was known as "collectivist anarchism", where "socially: it seeks the confirmation of political equality by economic equality. This is not the removal of natural individual differences, but equality in the social rights of every individual from birth; in particular, equal means of subsistence, support, education, and opportunity for every child, boy or girl, until maturity, and equal resources and facilities in adulthood to create his own well-being by his own labor."[43]
Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of both the
Critique of Marxism
The dispute between Bakunin and Karl Marx highlighted the differences between anarchism and Marxism. He strongly rejected Marx's concept of the "dictatorship of the proletariat" in which the new state would be unopposed and would, theoretically, represent the workers.[46] He argued that the state should be immediately abolished because all forms of government eventually lead to oppression.[46] He also vehemently opposed vanguardism, in which a political elite of revolutionaries guide the workers. Bakunin insisted that revolutions must be led by the people directly while any "enlightened elite" must exert influence only by remaining "invisible [...] not imposed on anyone [...] [and] deprived of all official rights and significance".[47] Bakunin claimed that Marxists "maintain that only a dictatorship—their dictatorship, of course—can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up".[48] Bakunin further stated that "we are convinced that liberty without socialism is privilege and injustice; and that socialism without liberty is slavery and brutality".[49]
While both anarchists and Marxists share the same final goal, the creation of a free,
Bakunin has sometimes been called the first theorist of the "new class", meaning a class of intellectuals and bureaucrats running the state in the name of the people or the proletariat, but in reality in their own interests alone. Bakunin argued that "[t]he State has always been the patrimony of some privileged class: a priestly class, an aristocratic class, a bourgeois class. And finally, when all the other classes have exhausted themselves, the State then becomes the patrimony of the bureaucratic class and then falls—or, if you will, rises—to the position of a machine."[42]
Federalism
By federalism, Bakunin meant the organization of society "from the base to the summit—from the circumference to the centre—according to the principles of free association and federation".[43] Consequently, society would be organized "on the basis of the absolute freedom of individuals, of the productive associations, and of the communes", with "every individual, every association, every commune, every region, every nation" having "the absolute right to self-determination, to associate or not to associate, to ally themselves with whomever they wish".[43]
Liberty
By liberty, Bakunin did not mean an abstract ideal but a concrete reality based on the equal liberty of others. In a positive sense, liberty consists of "the fullest development of all the faculties and powers of every human being, by education, by scientific training, and by material prosperity." Such a conception of liberty is "eminently social, because it can only be realized in society", not in isolation. In a negative sense, liberty is "the revolt of the individual against all divine, collective, and individual authority."[53]
Materialism
Bakunin denied religious concepts of a supernatural sphere and advocated a materialist explanation of natural phenomena, for "the manifestations of organic life, chemical properties and reactions, electricity, light, warmth and the natural attraction of physical bodies, constitute in our view so many different but no less closely interdependent variants of that totality of real beings which we call matter." For Bakunin, The "mission of science is, by observation of the general relations of passing and real facts, to establish the general laws inherent in the development of the phenomena of the physical and social world."[53]
Proletariat, lumpenproletariat and the peasantry
Bakunin differed from Marx's on the revolutionary potential of the
Revolutionary societies
Beginning in Italy with the International Brotherhood, Bakunin attempted to create secret revolutionary societies towards the end of his life, a concept at odds with his professed caution against the autocratic tendencies of the revolutionary elite. These organizations did not participate in revolutionary action.[19]
The idea of the "invisible dictatorship" was central to Bakunin's politics. In combination with Bakunin's opposition to parliamentary politics, historian Peter Marshall wrote that such a secret party, its existence unknown and its policies beholden to none, had the potential for greater tyranny than a Blanquist or Marxist party and was hard to envision as presaging an open, democratic society.[56]
Personal life
Bakunin married Antonia Kwiatkowska, originally from Poland, during his exile in Siberia. Kwiatkowska was much younger than Bakunin (18 years old and 26 years younger) and had little interest in politics. Their differences and Bakunin's meagre attention to romance have left biographers to speculate psychosexual rationales for Bakunin's personal life and the extent of his dedication to revolutionary action. Though she remained married to Bakunin through his death in 1876, during his life, Kwiatkowska had three children with an Italian disciple of his. She married this man after Bakunin's death.[57]
Legacy
Bakunin was the leading anarchist revolutionary of the 19th century, active from the 1840s through the 1870s.
Bakunin's legacy reflects the paradox and ambivalence by which he lived. As historian Paul Avrich put it, Bakunin was "a nobleman who yearned for a peasant revolt, a libertarian with an urge to dominate others, an intellectual with a powerful anti-intellectual streak", who professed unfettered liberty while demanding unconditional obedience from his followers. Many of his beliefs put him closer to future authoritarian movements.[58]
In particular, Bakunin's antisemitic passages have been the subject of extended interest, such that Bakunin biographer
Noam Chomsky called Bakunin's prediction that Marxist regimes would become dictatorships "one of the few predictions in the social sciences that actually came true".[64]
Bakunin's archives are held in the Pushkin House, State Archive of the Russian Federation, Russian State Library, Russian State Archive of Literature and Art, National Library of Russia, and International Institute of Social History.[29]
Works
Books
- ISBN 048622483X
Pamphlets
- Stateless Socialism: Anarchism (1953)
- Marxism, Freedom and the State,[65] (translated by Kenneth Kenafick in 1950)
- The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State (1871)
- The Immorality of the State (1953)
- ISBN 0521361826
- Revolutionary Catechism (1866)
- The Commune, the Church, and the State (1947)
- Founding of the First International (1953)
- On Rousseau (1972)
- No Gods No Masters (1998) by ISBN 1873176643
Articles
- "Power Corrupts the Best" (1867)
- "The Class War" (1870)
- "What is Authority?" (1870)
- "Recollections on Marx and Engels" (1869)
- "The Red Association" (1870)
- "Solidarity in Liberty" (1867)
- "The German Crisis" (1870)
- "God or Labor" (1947)
- "Where I Stand" (1947)
- "Appeal to my Russian Brothers" (1896)
- "The Social Upheaval" (1947)
- "Integral Education, Part I" (1869)
- "Integral Education, Part II" (1869)
- "The Organization of the International" (1869)
- "Polish Declaration" (1896)
- "Politics and the State" (1871)
- "Workers and the Sphinx" (1867)
- "The Policy of the Council" (1869)
- "The Two Camps" (1869)
Collections
- Bakunin on Anarchism (1971). Edited, translated and with an introduction by ISBN 0043210120.
- Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings (1974). A. Lehning (ed.). New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0802100201.
- ISBN 1551642514.
- The Political Philosophy of Bakunin (1953). G. P. Maximoff (ed.). It includes Mikhail Bakunin: A Biographical Sketch by Max Nettlau.
- The Basic Bakunin: Writings 1869–1871 (1992). Robert M. Cutler (ed.). New York: Prometheus Books, 1992. ISBN 0879757450.
See also
- Archives Bakounine
- List of Russian anarchists
Notes
- ^ Russian: Михаил Александрович Бакунин, IPA: [mʲɪxɐˈil ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvʲɪdʑ bɐˈkunʲɪn].
References
Footnotes
- S2CID 150893870.
- ISBN 978-0415250696.
- ^ Edie, James M.; Scanlan, James; Zeldin, Mary-Barbara (1994). Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture. University of Tennessee Press. p. 3.
Bakunin himself was a Westernizer
- ^ „In Brüssel macht er (Anm.: Bakunin) die folgenreiche Bekanntschaft des polnischen Historikers und Revolutionärs Ignacy Lelewel. Dessen slawophile Vision einer demokratischen Bauernrepublik beeindruckt ihn sehr, wobei er den engen Nationalismus der ganzen Sache in typisch Bakuninscher Begeisterung einfach ausblendet. Der Gedanke an eine generelle Erhebung der slawischen Völker, denen er die Kraft zutraut, als ungezähmter Motor einer generellen Revolution gegen jede Tyrannei zu wirken, nimmt Gestalt an und wird ihn für viele Jahre nicht mehr loslassen." aus: Horst Stowasser: Freiheit pur. Die Idee der Anarchie, Geschichte und Zukunft. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 1995, ISBN 3-8218-0448-3, S. 195.
- Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary. 2010.
- ISBN 0841502951
- ^ Sale, Kirkpatrick (2006-11-06) An Enemy of the State Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The American Conservative
- ^ a b c d e Shatz 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Eckhardt 2022, p. 308.
- ^ a b c Eckhardt 2022, p. 309.
- ^ Shatz 2003, p. 35; Eckhardt 2022, p. 309.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Shatz 2003, p. 36.
- ^ Eckhardt 2022, pp. 309–310.
- ^ a b c d e f g Eckhardt 2022, p. 310.
- ^ Shatz 2003, p. 36; Eckhardt 2022, p. 310.
- ^ Eckhardt 2022, pp. 310–311.
- ^ Shatz 2003, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Shatz 2003, p. 37.
- ^ a b c d e f g Shatz 2003, p. 38.
- ^ Avrich, Paul. "Bakunin in America" (PDF).
- ^ Kawelin, Konstantin (1894). Dragomanow, Michail (ed.). Konstantin Kawelins und Iwan Turgenjews sozial-politischer Briefwechsel mit Alexander Iw. Herzen: Mit Beilagen und Erläuterungen. Bibliothek russischer Denkwürdigkeiten; 4 Bd (in German). Stuttgart: Verlag der J. G. Cotta'schen Buchhandlung Nachfolger. pp. 64–66.
- ^ Begley, Adam (5 July 2017). "Nadar's Livre d'or". The Paris Review. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
- ^ "Nadar autograph album". Retrieved 23 November 2023.
- ^ Shatz 2003, pp. 38–39.
- ^ a b Shatz 2003, p. 39.
- ^ Shatz 2003, pp. 39–40.
- ^ a b Shatz 2003, p. 40.
- ^ Drake 2009, pp. 35–36.
- ^ a b c Shatz 2003, p. 41.
- ^ a b c d e God and the State, Michael Bakunin, 1882
- ^ Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings, ed. A. Lehning (New York: Grove Press, 1974), p. 268.
- ^ a b "What is Authority?". www.marxists.org.
- ^ Carl Schmitt (2005). Political Theology. University of Chicago Press. pg. 64
- ^ The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State, Mikhail Bakunin, 1871
- ^ "Michail Bakunin: Political Theology of Mazzinni; (1871); from the book: Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings published in 1973" (PDF).
- ^ Marshall 1992, pp. 300–301.
- ISBN 0226518884.
- ISBN 0226738892.
- ^ Mikhail Bakunin, Works of Mikhail Bakunin 1871, Marxists.org, retrieved 8 September 2009
- ^ Mikhail Bakunin, Works of Mikhail Bakunin 1870, Marxists.org, retrieved 8 September 2009
- ^ Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis, Mikhail Bakunin, 1870
- ^ a b On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx, Mikhail Bakunin, 1872
- ^ a b c Revolutionary Catechism, Mikhail Bakunin, 1866
- ^ Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54
- ^ Bakunin Mikail. Bakunin on Anarchism. Black Rose Books. 1980. p. 369
- ^ ISBN 0140206221.
- ^ a b Mikhail Bakunin, Works of Mikhail Bakunin 1873, Marxists.org, retrieved 8 September 2009
- ^ Anarchist Theory FAQ Version 5.2, Gmu.edu, retrieved 8 September 2009
- ^ Mikhail Bakunin (1867). "Federalism, Socialism, Anti-Theologism". Marxists.org.
- ^ Quoted in Brian Morris, Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom, 1993, p14
- ^ New York Daily Tribune (2 October 1852) on 'Revolution and Counter Revolution in Germany'
- ^ Quoted in Brian Morris, Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom, 1993, p. 29.
- ^ a b Bakunin, Mikhail. Selected Writings. p. 219.
- ^ "Marxism and Anarchism: The Philosophical Roots of the Marx-Bakunin Conflict – Part Two" by Ann Robertson.
- ^ "3. The lumpenproletariat and the proletarian unnameable". libcom.org.
- ^ Marshall 1992, p. 287.
- ^ Shatz 2003, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Avrich 1988, p. 14.
- ^ Eiglad 2015, pp. 235–236.
- ^ Stoetzler 2014, pp. 139–140.
- ^ a b Shatz 1990, p. xxx.
- ISBN 9781576072097.
- ^ Leier 2009, p. 276.
- ^ Noam Chomsky - Lenin, the USSR, and the Predictions of Bakunin, retrieved 8 July 2023
- JSTOR 3484301. Accessed 9 Mar. 2023.
Bibliography
- S2CID 241705620.
- Drake, Richard (2009). "Carlo Cafiero". Apostles and Agitators: Italy's Marxist Revolutionary Tradition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03432-7.
- Eckhardt, Wolfgang (2022). "Mikhail Bakunin and Social Anarchism". In van der Linden, Marcel (ed.). The Cambridge History of Socialism. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 308–330. ISBN 978-1-108-48134-2.
- Eiglad, Eirik (2015). "Anti-Zionism and the Anarchist Tradition". In Rosenfeld, Alvin H. (ed.). Deciphering the New Antisemitism. Studies in Antisemitism. Indiana University Press. pp. 206–241. ISBN 978-0-253-01869-4.
- OCLC 1090891844.
- ISBN 978-0-00-217855-6.
- Shatz, Marshall (1990). "Introduction". Bakunin: Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36973-2.
- Gale OOJNKW999627593.
- Stoetzler, Marcel (2014). Antisemitism and the Constitution of Sociology. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-4864-9.
- OCLC 489971695.
Further reading
- OCLC 915244740.
- Angaut, Jean-Christophe."Revolution and the Slav question : 1848 and Mikhail Bakunin" in Douglas Moggach and Gareth Stedman Jones (eds.) The 1848 revolutions and European political thought. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
- OCLC 1112575991.
- SBN 333 18425 4.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 231.
- Cochrane, Stephen (1977). The Collaboration of Necaev, Ogarev, and Bakunin in 1869. Osteuropastudien der Hochschulen des Landes Hessen. Vol. 18. OCLC 462089331.
- David, Zdeněk V. "Frič, Herzen, and Bakunin: the Clash of Two Political Cultures." East European Politics and Societies 12.1 (1997): 1–30.
- Eckhardt, Wolfgang (2016). The First Socialist Schism: Bakunin vs. Marx in the International Working Men's Association. OCLC 1242987176.
- Goodwin, James (2007). "Russian Anarchism and the Bolshevization of Bakunin in the Early Soviet Period". S2CID 154662742.
- ISBN 0853451753).
- OCLC 5928655.
- Judaica(1950), Historia judaica, Volumes 12–14, Verlag von Julius Kittls Nachfolger
- Kelly, Aileen (1982). Mikhail Bakunin: A Study in the Psychology and Politics of Utopianism. LCCN 82-6287.
- Masters, Anthony (1974). Bakunin: the Father of Anarchism. OCLC 907511050.
- McLaughlin, Paul (2002). Mikhail Bakunin: The Philosophical Basis of his Anarchism. OCLC 612054885.
- Mendel, Arthur (1981). Michael Bakunin: Roots of Apocalypse. LCCN 81-5168.
- OCLC 678812569.
- OCLC 463186694.
- OCLC 984463383.
- Ravindranathan, T. R. (1988). Bakunin and the Italians. OCLC 848525194.
- Saltman, Richard (1983). The Social and Political Thought of Michael Bakunin. OCLC 461887077.
- ISBN 080214005X).
- Wheen, Francis (1999), Karl Marx, Fourth Estate, ISBN 1857026373
- OCLC 890439998.
- Young, Marc (2017). Reflections on Prophecy: A Critical Appreciation of Michael Bakunin's Thought. Calesius Papers in Political Philosophy. Calesius C.B.
External links
- Bakunin Archive at RevoltLib
- Bakunin archive at Anarchy Archives
- Archive of Michail Aleksandrovič Bakunin Papers at the International Institute of Social History
- Writings of Bakunin at Marxist Internet Archive
- Works by Mikhail Aleksandrovic Bakunin at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Mikhail Bakunin at Internet Archive
- Works by Mikhail Bakunin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)