Military history of Canada

The military history of Canada comprises hundreds of years of armed actions in the territory encompassing modern Canada, and interventions by the

In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years' War—the British emerged victorious, and the French civilians, whom the British hoped to assimilate, were declared "British subjects". After the passing of the Quebec Act in 1774, Canadians received their first charter of rights under the new regime, and the northern colonies chose not to join the American Revolution and remained loyal to the British crown. The Americans invaded in 1775 and from 1812 to 1814, although they were rebuffed on both occasions. However, the threat of US invasion remained well into the 19th century, partially facilitating Canadian Confederation in 1867.

After Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the

Warfare pre-contact

Warfare existed in all regions and waxed in intensity, frequency and decisiveness. It was even common in subarctic areas that had sufficient population density.^[1] However, Inuit groups in the extreme northern Arctic typically avoided direct warfare due to their small populations, relying on traditional law to resolve conflicts.^[2] Conflict was waged for economic and political reasons, such as asserting their tribal independence, securing resources and territory, exacting tribute, and controlling trade routes. Additionally, conflicts arose for personal and tribal honour, seeking revenge for perceived wrongs.^[3][4]

In

The first clash between Europeans and Indigenous peoples likely transpired around 1003, during

The first European-Indigenous engagements to occur in Canada during the Age of Discovery took place during Jacques Cartier's third expedition to the Americas from 1541 to 1542. Between 1577 and 1578, the Inuit clashed with English explorers under Martin Frobisher near Baffin Island.^[15]

17th century

Firearms began to make their way into Indigenous hands by the early 17th century, with significant acquisition starting in the 1640s.^[4] The arrival of firearms made fighting between Indigenous groups bloodier and more decisive,^[16] especially as tribes got embroiled in the economic and military rivalries of European settlers. Unequal access to firearms and horses significantly amplified bloodshed in Indigenous conflicts.^[17] By the end of the 17th century, Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands and the eastern subarctic rapidly transitioned to firearms, supplanting the bow.^[18] Though firearms predominated, the bow and arrow saw limited use into the early 18th century as a covert weapon for surprise attacks.^[4]

Early European colonies in Canada include the French settlement of Port-Royal in 1605 and the English settlement of Cuper's Cove five years later.^[19] French claims stretched to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and colonists established scattered settlements.^[20] The French built a series of forts to defend these settlements,^[21] although some were also used as trading posts.^[21] New France's two main colonies, Acadia on the Bay of Fundy and Canada on the St. Lawrence River, relied mainly on the fur trade.^[22] These colonies grew slowly due to difficult geographical and climatic circumstances.^[23] By 1706, its population was around 16,000.^[24][25][26] By the mid-1700s, New France had about one-tenth of the population of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south.^[27][28] In addition to the Thirteen Colonies, the English chartered seasonal fishing settlements in Newfoundland Colony and claimed Hudson Bay and its drainage basin, known as Rupert's Land, through the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC).^[29]

The early military of New France was made up of regulars from the French Royal Army and Navy, supported by the colonial militia.^[30] Initially composed of soldiers from France, New France's military evolved to include many volunteers raised within the colony by 1690. Moreover, many French soldiers stationed in New France chose to stay after their service, fostering a tradition of generational service and the creation of a military elite.^[31][32] By the 1750s, most New French military officers were born in the colony.^[31] New France's military also relied on Indigenous allies for support to mitigate the manpower advantage of the Thirteen Colonies.^[33] This relationship significantly impacted New French military practices, like the adoption of Indigenous guerrilla tactics by its military professionals.^[15][34]

Beaver Wars

The Beaver Wars (1609-1701) were intermittent conflicts involving the

Conflict between the French and Iroquois likely arose from the latter's ambition to control the beaver pelt trade.[36] However, some scholars posit Iroquoian hegemonic ambitions as a factor, while others suggest these were "mourning wars" to replenish populations in the wake of the epidemic that afflicted Indigenous peoples. Regardless, Iroquois hostilities against First Nations of the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes disrupted the fur trade and drew the French into the wider conflict.^[15]

1609–1667

Initially, the French offered limited support to their First Nations allies, providing iron arrowheads, knives, and only a few firearms.^[15][41] Although Franco-Indigenous saw some initial success, the Iroquois gained the initiative after adopting new tactics that integrated Indigenous hunting skills and terrain knowledge with firearms acquired from the Dutch.^[42] Access to firearms proved decisive, enabling the Iroquois to wage a highly effective guerrilla war.^[36]

After depleting the beaver population within their lands, the Iroquois launched several expansionist campaigns, raiding the Algonquin in the

Peace between the Iroquois and the French ended in 1658 when the French withdrew their Iroquois missions.[15] After years of expansionist campaigns in the mid-1650s, the outbreak of a wider front in 1659 and 1660 strained the Confederacy.^[36] To secure a favourable peace, the French sent the

After the 1667 peace, the French formed alliances with First Nations further west, most of whom conflicted with the Iroquois. The French provided them with firearms and encouraged them to attack the Iroquois. They also solidified ties with the

In 1689, the Iroquois launched new attacks, including the Lachine massacre, in support of their English allies during the Nine Years' War and in retaliation for the 1687 expedition.^[36] However, after a flurry of raids by France's western allies and a Franco-Indigenous expedition led by Governor General Louis de Buade de Frontenac in 1696, the weakened Iroquois chose to negotiate for peace.^[36] The Great Peace of Montreal was signed in 1701 between 39 First Nations, including the Iroquois Confederacy and France's allied First Nations. As part of the agreement, the Iroquois pledged neutrality in Anglo-French conflicts in exchange for trade benefits from France. These terms weakened the Covenant Chain between the Iroquois and the English Crown and their trading ties with New England.^[44] Although the nations of the Iroquois Confederacy expanded their territories as a result of the conflict, it did not lead to the prosperity they sought.^[36]

Early British-French colonial hostilities

English-French hostilities over colonial interests first escalated in 1613 when Samuel Argall and his sailors destroyed the French settlement of Port-Royal to secure the Bay of Fundy fisheries for the English colony of Virginia. Facing little resistance, the settlement was razed.^[45]

In the Anglo-French War of 1627 to 1629, the English authorized David Kirke to settle Canada and conduct raids against the French there. In 1628, Kirke's forces seized a French supply fleet and Tadoussac, and captured Quebec City the next year.^[46] As French control waned during the conflict, Scottish settlers founded settlements in seized territories like Port-Royal and Baleine. However, French forces destroyed Baleine just two months after its establishment in 1629.^[47] In 1630, an Anglo-Scottish force attempted to capture one of France's few remaining footholds in Acadia, Fort St. Louis, although failed.^[48] French settlements that were seized during the war were returned following the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.^[46][47]

Acadian Civil War

Acadia fell into civil war in the mid-17th century.^[49] After Lieutenant Governor Isaac de Razilly died in 1635, Acadia was split administratively. Charles de Menou d'Aulnay ruled from Port-Royal and Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour governed from Saint John.^[50][51] Unclear boundaries overs administrative authority led to conflict between the two governors.^[50]

In 1640, La Tour forces attacked Port-Royal.^[52] In response, d'Aulnay imposed a five-month blockade on Saint John. La Tour's forces overcame the blockade and retaliated with an attack on Port-Royal in 1643.^[53] In April 1645, d'Aulney besieged and captured Saint John, after hearing of La Tour's departure to meet his supporters in New England.^[54] d'Aulney governed all of Acadia from 1645 until he died in 1650, having gained favour with the French government by informing them of La Tour's attempt to seek aid from the English in New England.^[50]

After d'Aulney's death, La Tour returned to France and regained his reputation and governorship over Acadia.^[53] La Tour's governorship of Acadia ended in 1654 when English forces under Robert Sedgwick seized the territory exhausted by years of civil war and neglect by the French court.^[50] Sedgwick seized Acadia to secure its fur and fishing resources for New England and The Protectorate, having been authorized to retaliate against French privateer attacks on English ships.^[55]

Anglo-Dutch Wars

The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) resulted from tensions between England and the Dutch Republic, driven partly by competition over maritime dominance and trade routes. A year before the conflict, in September 1664, Michiel de Ruyter was instructed to retaliate against the English seizures of Dutch East India Company assets in West Africa by attacking English ships in the West Indies and Newfoundland fisheries.^[56] In June 1665, de Ruyter's fleet sailed from Martinique to Newfoundland, seizing English merchant ships and raiding St. John's before returning to Europe.^[57][58] The peace treaty that ended the conflict resulted in the English returning Acadia to the French, a region they seized in 1654.^[59]

During the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), in 1673, a Dutch fleet raided English colonies in North America, including fishing fleets and shore facilities at Ferryland on Newfoundland.^[60]

Nine Years' War

During the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known as King William's War. Initially, Governor General Frontenac devised a grand invasion strategy aimed at conquering the Province of New York to isolate the Iroquois. However, the scale of the plan was later reduced. In February 1690, three joint New French and First Nations military expeditions were dispatched to New England. One attacked Schenectady, another raided Salmon Falls, while a third besieged Fort Loyal. Additionally, New France urged its First Nations allies to conduct smaller raids along the English American frontier and promoted the act of scalping as a form of psychological warfare.^[33]

Having faced several attacks by New France's petite guerre,^[61] the English launched two retalitory expeditions against New France.^[33] The initial large naval expedition aimed to capture Quebec City in 1690. However, it suffered from poor organization and arrived just before the St. Lawrence River froze over in mid-October, leaving little time to achieve its objective.

During the war, the French strengthened their control over Hudson Bay. They had already seized several Hudson's Bay Company forts in an expedition two years before the war and moved to seize the HBC's only remaining fort, York Factory. An early attempt to seize it failed in 1690, and a second attempt led to its brief capture before it was retaken by the English. The French finally secured York Factory after the Battle of Hudson's Bay in 1697.^[69]

The war concluded in 1697 with the Peace of Ryswick, which required the return of all territorial gains. The HBC was also forced to surrender all but one fort on Hudson Bay. The peace resulted in the English and French to reinforce their alliances and trade relations with Indigenous groups. It also paved the way for the negotiated peace of the Beaver Wars in 1701.^[70][71]

English-maritime Algonquians conflict

The English-French conflict intertwined with an ongoing conflict between the English and maritime Algonquians. Shortly before King William's War, the Algonquians attacked several English settlements in retaliation against English encroachment on their territory. French missionaries and settlers living in Indigenous villages leveraged Algonquian-Anglo hostilities to the advantage of the French cause. Peace talks in 1693 between the English and maritime Algonquians were sabotaged by the French, who encouraged their Indigenous allies to continue fighting. Additionally, the French encouraged the Abenaki and

During the 18th century, the British–French struggle in Canada intensified as the rivalry worsened in Europe.

Hostilities between the British and French during the War of Spanish Succession extended to their North American colonies i a conflict known as Queen Anne's War (1702–1713). The conflict primarily focused on Acadia and New England, as Canada and New York informally agreed to remain neutral. Initially neutral, the French-aligned Abenaki were drawn into the conflict due to English hostilities.^[33]

Raids between Acadians and New Englanders took place throughout the war, including the raid on Grand Pré in 1704 and the Battle of Bloody Creek in 1711.^[76] The raid on Grand Pré, launched by New England forces, was in retaliation for a French-First Nations raid on Deerfield in the British Province of Massachusetts Bay. Similar raids in Massachusetts included the raid on Haverhill.^[33] The French besieging St. John's in 1705 and captured the city after a battle in 1709.^[77][78] The French faced a significant setback when the British captured the Acadian capital of Port-Royal after besieging it three times during the conflict. Despite repelling two sieges in 1707, Port-Royal fell to the British during the third siege in 1710.^[79] Building on their success in Acadia, the British initiated the Quebec Expedition to capture the colonial capital of New France. However, the expedition was abandoned when its fleet was wrecked by the waters of the St. Lawrence River.^[77]

The ensuing

Although British-French hostilities ended in 1713, conflict persisted between the maritime Algonquians and the British, with the Mi’kmaq seizing 40 British ships from 1715 to 1722.[33]^[82] In May 1722 Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostages to Annapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being attacked.^[83] In July, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq initiated a blockade of Annapolis Royal, aiming to starve the capital.^[84] Due to increasing tensions, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the Abenaki on July 22.^[85] Early engagements during the war took place in the Nova Scotia.^[86][87] In July 1724, 60 Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal.^[88]

The treaty that ended the war marked a major change in European relations with the maritime Algonquians, as it granted the British the right to settle in traditional Abenaki and Mi'kmaq lands.

The Fox Wars, was an intermittent conflict from 1712 to the 1730s between New France and its Indigenous allies against the Meskwaki.^[15][90] The conflict highlighted how the New French military, supported by its allies, was able to inflict significant losses against enemies thousands of kilometres away from its Canadian core.^[90]

In response to Meskwaki raids on coureurs de bois and Indigenous allies, particularly the Illinois, New French troops were deployed westward in 1716 to confront the Meskwaki. Despite initial success in forcing them to seek peace, the attacks continued. With diplomatic efforts failing in the 1720s, New France resolved to exterminate the Meskwaki. Subsequent campaigns, including an Illinois-led siege in 1730, led to the death or enslavement of many Meskwaki. A final punitive expedition by New France to present-day Iowa in 1735 failed due to lack of support from Indigenous allies, who deemed the Meskwaki adequately punished.^[15]

War of Austrian Succession

British and French forces clashed in the War of Austrian Succession, with the North American theatre known as

Throughout the war, Acadians and Canadiens raided frontier settlements in Nova Scotia, New England, and New York.[91] Attacks on Nova Scotia include those on Canso, Annapolis Royal, and Grand Pré.^[92] French-Mohawk also attacked New England and New York, such as the raid on Saratoga and the siege of Fort Massachusetts. However, the Mohawk were unwilling to join French excursions deeper into New York to avoid conflicts with other members of the Iroquois Confederacy.^[33]

In 1745, a British-New England force besieiged and captured Louisbourg.^[93] The capture of Louisbourg significantly weakened Franco-Indigenous alliances in the Great Lakes region by isolating Quebec City from France and brought trade to a standstill in the Great Lakes The price of goods skyrocketed, resulting in the French inability to provide annual gifts to secure its alliances. As a result, the French lost the support of some Indigenous nations who initially backed their war effort, with some communities viewing the absence of gifts as a breach of alliance terms.^[33] Although Louisbourg was captured, the British were not able to advance further into New France,^[91] with a British advance on Île Saint-Jean at the Battle at Port-la-Joye being defeated in 1746.^[33] In the same year, the French launched the Duc d'Anville expedition, the largest military expedition to depart from Europe for the Americas at that time, aiming to recapture Louisbourg. However, it failed due to adverse weather and illness among troops before reaching Nova Scotia..^[94]

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748, returning control of Louisbourg to the French in exchange for some wartime territorial gains in the Low Countries and India.^[91] The return of Louisbourg to the French outraged New Englanders. In response to the continued French presence around Nova Scotia, the British founded the military settlement of Halifax, and built Citadel Hill in 1749.^[95]

Father Le Loutre's War

Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) occurred in Acadia and Nova Scotia, pitting the British and New Englanders, led by figures like John Gorham and Charles Lawrence,^[96] against the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, under the leadership of French priest Jean-Louis Le Loutre.^[97] Throughout the conflict, Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked British fortifications and newly established Protestant settlements in Nova Scotia to hinder British expansion and aid France's Acadian resettlement scheme.^[98]

After Halifax was established by the British, the Acadians and Mi'kmaq launched

The war saw Atlantic Canada experience unprecedented fortification building and troop deployments.[97] The region also saw unprecedented population movement, with Acadians and Mi'kmaq leaving Nova Scotia in an exodus to the French colonies of Île Saint-Jean and Île Royale.^[102]

Seven Years' War

The French and Indian Wars culminated in the Seven Years' War. Although formal hostilities between France and Great Britain began in 1756, clashes erupted in North America in 1754 in what became known as the French and Indian War (1754–1760).^[103] Disputes over the Ohio Country prompted the French to construct a series forts in 1753, sparking hostilities with neighbouring British colonies in 1754.^[104] Most First Nations supported the French, largely due to their opposition to earlier British territorial policies. The British worked to undermine the Franco-Indigenous alliances by seeking the latter's neutrality through Iroquois intermediaries. The Iroquois Confederacy eventually entered the conflict in support of the British at the Battle of Fort Niagara in 1759.^[33]

Early French success and Acadia

In 1754, the British planned a four-pronged attack against New France, with attacks planned against Fort Niagara on the Niagara River, Fort Saint-Frédéric on Lake Champlain, Fort Duquesne on the Ohio River, and Fort Beauséjour at the border of French-held Acadia. The plan fell apart as forces sent to capture Niagara and Saint-Frédéric abandoned their campaigns, and the Braddock Expedition sent to capture Duquesne was defeated by New French-First Nations forces at the Battle of the Monongahela.^{[103][105][106]} Although most of the plan had failed, the army sent to Acadia was successful at the Battle of Fort Beauséjour.^[103] After Beauséjour, the British worked to consolidate control over Acadia, neutralizing the Acadians military potency and disrupting supply lines to Louisbourg, starting with the Bay of Fundy campaign in 1755.^[103][107] These campaigns resulted in the forced relocation of over 12,000 Acadians from Acadia during the war.^[108]

In 1756, following the formal declaration of war between the British and French, the commander-in-chief of New France, Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, devised a military strategy to keep the British on the defensive and away from the populated areas of New France, the colony of Canada. This strategy involved offensive operations such as attacking Fort Oswego and besieging Fort William Henry, along with raids on British frontier settlements by the Canadian militia and First Nations allies. A small French army, supported by the militia and First Nations allies, effectively pinned down British forces at its frontier, prompting the dispatch of 20,000 additional soldiers to reinforce British America. Despite early success in tying down British forces, the French were hindered by limited resources, as most of their army was engaged the Europe, unable to reinforce New France.^[103]

British conquest of New France

In July 1758, a renewed British offensive against New France saw their initial invasion force of 15,000 soldiers repelled at the Battle of Carillon by 3,800 French regulars and militiamen.^[109] However, in the following weeks, the French faced significant setbacks. The British captured Louisbourg after a month-long siege in June–July 1758 and destroyed the French supply stock at Fort Frontenac in August 1758.^[103][110] During that time, the French were compelled to retreat from Fort Duquesne when some of their First Nations allies made a separate peace agreement with the British.^[103]

Following these victories, the British launched three campaigns against Canada: the first two targeted Niagara and Lake Champlain, while the third aimed at Quebec City. After the French repelled the latter invasion force at the Battle of Beauport, British commander Major-General James Wolfe opted to besiege Quebec City. The three-month siege culminated in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in September 1759, where French general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm led a numerically inferior force out of the city's walls to face the British. The French were defeated, with both Wolfe and Montcalm being killed due to the battle.^[111][112]

In April 1760, the French launched a campaign to retake Quebec City, defeating the British at the Battle of Sainte-Foy. After the battle, the British withdrew into the walls of Quebec City's. The French besieged the city until May, when a British naval force defeated a French naval unit supporting the siege at the Battle of Pointe-aux-Trembles.^[113] The arrival of the British Royal Navy left New France virtually isolated from France.^[103] As a result, the remaining French Army retreated to Montreal and signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on 8 September, marking the completion of the British conquest of New France and the end of the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.^[114] A week later, the British made peace with the Seven Nations of Canada, followed by France's maritime Algonquian allies in 1761.^[33]

British naval supremacy was pivotal in the war's outcome, facilitating the capture of Louisbourg and Quebec City and blocking French reinforcements to the colony. This led to significant territorial concessions by France in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, including New France. However, the war burdened Britain with a massive national debt. The absence of French military presence in North America also emboldened residents of the Thirteen Colonies, who no longer needed to rely on the British for military protection against the French.^[103]

Pontiac's War

After the Seven Years' War in 1763, rumours circulated of a First Nations offensive on the British frontier. An alliance of First Nations led by Odawa chief Pontiac aimed to expel the British from the Great Lakes and Ohio Country. The alliance was forced to lay siege to Fort Detroit after learning the British were aware of their activities. The siege prompted other First Nations aligned with Odawa to attack British outposts in the region.^[115] In the conflict, a 300-strong battalion of French Canadians, led by former Troupes de la Marines, was raised and sent to Fort Detroit as part of Brigadier-General John Bradstreet's expedition.^[116] Despite its early success, the resistance waned when Pontiac failed to capture Fort Detroit.^[103]

Peace was eventually achieved through the distribution of traditional presents and the issuance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. This proclamation established the Province of Quebec and the Indian Reserve, while also granting First Nations various land rights.^[103][115] These measures were implemented to protect the First Nations while facilitating the peaceful, "gradual settlement" of the frontier. However, it inadvertently made Britain into an obstacle against the territorial expansion of the Thirteen Colonies, a role previously held by France.^[115]

American Revolutionary War

After the Seven Years' War, the Thirteen Colonies became restive over taxes imposed by the British Parliament, with many questioning its necessity when they no longer needed to pay for a large military force to counter the French.^[117] American frustrations intensified following the passage of the Quebec Act, which restored Catholic rights in the Province of Quebec, much to the ire of the anti-Catholic Protestant-based Thirteen Colonies. The act also expanded Quebec's territory to include portions of the Indian Reserve, such as the Ohio Country, long desired by British colonies like Pennsylvania and Virginia.^[118] These tensions led to a political revolution in the Thirteen Colonies, and eventually, the American Revolutionary War (1775–1776), with American rebels aiming to break free from the British parliament, and assert their claim on the Ohio Country.^[119]

Quebec and Nova Scotia

At the war's start, most people in Quebec and the Maritime colonies remained neutral, hesitant to join either the Americans or the British side.^[120] Early in the war, revolutionaries launched a propaganda campaign in Canadian colonies, although it only attracted limited support. British attempts to raise a militia in Quebec also saw limited success, although they were able to rely on the French Canadian clergy, landowners, and other leading citizens for support.^[118] The British received support from the Seven Nations of Canada and the Iroquois Confederacy, though the latter attempted to remain neutral due to an internal civil conflict in the confederacy.^[115]

In September 1775, American forces invaded Quebec, beginning with the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and the siege of Fort St. Jean near Montreal. The siege prompted Governor Guy Carleton to abandon Montreal for Quebec City. The Continental Army advanced towards Quebec City, where they were joined by Benedict Arnold's expedition. On New Year's Eve, they attacked the city but were repelled.^[118][121] After the failed assault, the Americans besieged Quebec until spring 1776, when the Americans were routed by a British naval force sent to relieve Quebec. The Americans subsequently abandoned Montreal, and their remaining forces were defeated at the Battle of Trois-Rivières in June 1776. British forces, led by General John Burgoyne, pursued the retreating Americans out of Quebec into New York in a counter-invasion.^[118]

Although the Canadien militia formed most of Quebec City's defenders during the invasion, they saw limited action beyond Quebec. British reluctance to deploy them elsewhere stemmed from uncertainty about their loyalty when faced with the French Army.

New Englanders attempted to incite a revolt in Nova Scotia but were defeated at the battles of Fort Cumberland in 1776 and St. John in 1777.^[118][123] Although they failed to incite a revolt, Nova Scotia remained a target of American privateering throughout the war, with most coastal outposts being attacked.^[118] Attacks like the 1782 raid on Lunenburg had a devastating effect on the colony's maritime economy.^{[124][125][126]} American privateers seized 225 vessels departing from or arriving at Nova Scotian ports in total.^[127] The French Navy also attacked a British naval convoy off Nova Scotia in July 1781.^[128] Conversely, the British captured many American privateers off Nova Scotia's coast, such as in the 1782 battle off Halifax. They also used the colony as a staging ground to launch attacks against New England, as seen in the Battle of Machias.^[129]

Consequences

The revolutionaries' failure to seize the Canadian colonies and the continued loyalty of British colonists led to the fragmentation of Britain's North American empire.

The emergence of a powerful neighbour fuelled suspicions in Canadian colonies against the US for decades. Over 75,000 Loyalists, comprising 15 percent of residents in the Thirteen Colonies who supported the Crown, migrated north to the remaining parts of British North America.^{[118][131][132]} The British also ceded Indian Reserve south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States. As the area included the traditional Iroquois territory, the British offered land in Quebec to the Iroquois, hoping to establish new Iroquois communities that would serve as a barrier against the Americans.^[115]

French Revolutionary Wars

In 1796, during the

A form of compulsory military service was established in the Canadas during the 19th century, instituted in Lower Canada in 1803 and Upper Canada in 1808.[135] The compulsory sedentary militia comprised male inhabitants aged 16 to 60 and was mobilized solely during emergencies. In peacetime, service involved a one to two-day annual muster parade.^[136][137]

The role of the militia during the American Revolution and War of 1812 led to the "

Animosity and suspicion persisted between the UK and the US in the decades after the American Revolution.^[139] The

American war strategy focused on a vulnerable Upper Canada over the well-defended Maritime colonies and distant Lower Canada and its fortified capital. However, some preparations in Upper Canada were made before the war, due to the foresight of Major-General Isaac Brock.^[140] At the war's start, Upper Canada's defences comprised 1,600 regulars, Indigenous allies, and Canadian units raised for the war, including the Provincial Marine, Fencibles, and militia groups like Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men.^[140][141]

Believing a bold attack was needed to galvanize the local population and First Nations to defend the colony, Brock quickly led a British-First Nations siege on Fort Mackinac.^[140] In August 1812, Brock's force moved towards Amherstburg to confront invading an American army in Upper Canada, only to find that they had retreated to Detroit upon arrival.^[139] The American retreat facilitated Brock's alliance with Shawnee chief Tecumseh and provided him with the excuse to abandon his orders to maintain a defensive posture within Upper Canada.^[143] A British-First Nations force besieged and captured Detroit, providing them control over the Michigan Territory and the Upper Mississippi.^{[144][145][146]}

In October 1812, a British-First Nations force thwarted an American crossing of the Niagara River at the Battle of Queenston Heights. However, the battle resulted in the death of Brock.^[147][148] In late 1812, another American army assembled to recapture Detroit. However, its defeat at the Battle of Frenchtown in January 1813 ended the threat of further American offensives that winter.^[140] Despite the success of Brock's offensives, his death prompted the British to adopt a defensive stance. Governor General George Prevost prioritized conserving his forces, concentrating the strongest garrisons in Lower Canada. Conversely, Upper Canada was only reinforced when additional troops arrived from overseas.^[140]

1813

In April 1813, an American naval squadron defeated the British at the Battle of York, briefly occupying and burning parts of the Upper Canadian capital. They then captured Fort George on May 27. However, the retreating British regrouped and defeated American forces at the battles of Stoney Creek and Beaver Dams. The Americans retreated across the Niagara River in December after setting Fort George and Niagara ablaze. In retaliation, the British razed parts of Buffalo during the Battle of Buffalo and continued such actions into 1814, like the burning of Washington.^[140][149]

Although the British successfully defended the Niagara Peninsula in 1813, they faced significant setbacks in the western frontier. The British-First Nations force

In late 1813, the Americans also sent two armies to invade Lower Canada. A British-First Nations force turned back a larger American force at the Battle of the Chateauguay in October 1813. The next month, a British force repelled another large American army during the Battle of Crysler's Farm.^[140][152]

1814

The final incursions into the Canadas took place in 1814. US forces crossed the Niagara River in July and captured Fort Erie. The American advance led to the Battle of Lundy's Lane. While the battle ended in a stalemate, the exhausted Americans were compelled to retreat to Fort Erie. The Americans successfully defended Fort Erie against a British siege, but the exhausted Americans retreated to the US shortly after, effectively ending the conflict in the Canadas.^[140]

In 1814, the British regained the initiative, securing control of Lake Huron through several engagements and establishing effective control over Lake Ontario with HMS St Lawrence, a first-rate warship that deterred American naval actions from its launch in September to war's end.^[140][153] As the War of the Sixth Coalition concluded, the British shifted focus to their conflict with the US. Lower Canada and Nova Scotia served as staging grounds for invasions. A force that gathered in Lower Canada invaded northern New York but was repelled at the Battle of Plattsburgh in September. The force gathered in Halifax had greater success, capturing most of Maine's coastline by mid-September.^[140]

Throughout the war, Nova Scotian communities purchased and built privateer ships to raid US shipping.^[154] The Liverpool Packet, a notable privateering vessel from Liverpool, Nova Scotia, captured 50 ships during the war.^[155]

The

In 1812, the Red River Colony was established by the Hudson's Bay Company despite opposition from the North West Company (NWC), who already operated a trading post, Fort Gibraltar, in the area. In January 1814, the colony issued the Pemmican Proclamation, banning the export of pemmican and other provisions for a year to secure its growth. The NWC and local Métis voyageurs that traded with the NWC opposed the ban, viewing it as a move by the HBC to control NWC traders' food supply.^[158]

In June 1815, Métis leader and NWC clerk Cuthbert Grant led a group to harass and steal supplies from the Red River settlement. In response, the HBC seized Fort Gibraltar in March 1816 to curb local pemmican trade. This led to the brief Battle of Seven Oaks in June 1816 when HBC officials confronted Métis and First Nations voyageurs. After the confrontation, Grant briefly controlled the area, prompting the HBC and Red River settlers to retreat to Norway House. HBC authority was restored in August when Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, arrived with 90 soldiers.^[158]

British forces in Canada in the mid–19th century

Fear of an American invasion of the Canadas persisted for at least the next half-century, prompting the retention of a sizable British garrison in the colony.

The British Army levied and recruited from the local population to form new units or to replace individuals lost to enemy action, sickness, or desertion. Examples of this practice include the War of 1812, the Rebellions of 1837–1838, the Fenian Raids, and the Wolseley expedition.^[162] British Army units raised in Canadian colonies during this period include the 40th Regiment of Foot, the 100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot, and the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment.

Several Canadians served in the British military during the

Two armed uprisings broke out from 1837 to 1838 in the Canadas.^[167] Calls for responsible government and an economic depression in Lower Canada led to protests and, subsequently, an armed insurrection led by the radical Patriote movement. The uprising, which erupted in November 1837, was the more significant and violent insurgency between the two rebellions.^[168] The other armed uprising occurred in Upper Canada shortly thereafter, its leaders inspired by the events in Lower Canada.^[169]

The inaugural uprising in Lower Canada began in November 1837. British regulars and Canadian militia fought Patriote rebels in a series of skirmishes, including the battles of Saint-Denis, Saint-Charles, and Saint-Eustache.^[170] The disorganized rebels were defeated, with their leadership escaping to the US. Following this, anglophone militias pillaged and burned French Canadian settlements. A second uprising in Lower Canada commenced in November 1838 with aid from American volunteers, but it was poorly organized and quickly put down. The Lower Canada Rebellion resulted in 325 deaths, predominantly among the rebels, while the British recorded 27 fatalities.^[169]

The Upper Canada Rebellion, led by William Lyon Mackenzie, primarily comprised disaffected American-origin farmers who opposed the preferential treatment of British settlers in the colony's land grant system.^[171] The first confrontation occurred at the Battle of Montgomery's Tavern in Toronto on 5 December 1837. Most rebels dispersed after the battle, although a small faction remained until Loyalist and Black Loyalist militias attacked the tavern three days later. Mackenzie later seized Navy Island, declaring it the Republic of Canada, but fled to the US after the rebel ship Caroline was burned by Canadian volunteers. The Upper Canada Rebellion resulted in three deaths—two rebels and one loyalist.^[169] For the rest of 1838, Mackenzie's followers and US sympathizers conducted a series of raids against Upper Canada known as the Patriot War.

The rebellions led to the Durham Report, which recommended uniting the Canadas. The Act of Union 1840 united Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada and paved the way for the introduction of responsible government in 1848.^[169]

Conflicts during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush

The influx of gold

The Chilcotin War was another conflict that broke out in the area in April 1864, when Tsilhqot'in killed 21 prospectors and construction workers who crossed into their territory. The attacks sparked a month-long armed standoff in the British Columbia Interior, after a group predominantly made up of American prospectors marched from the colonial capital of New Westminster to quell the resistance in the Crown's name. The conflict ended with the mistaken arrest of a Tsilhqot'in peace delegation. Six delegates were convicted and hanged for murder, despite the Tsilhqot'in maintaining its actions were an act of war rather than murder. In 2018, the Canadian government exonerated the six individuals and issued an apology to the Tsilhqot'in, recognizing "that they acted in accordance with their laws and traditions" for war.^[173]

American Civil War

At the start of the American Civil War (1861–1865), the British Empire declared neutrality, although its colonies in British North America sold weapons to both sides of the war. Although some Canadian newspapers sympathized with the Confederate States of America due to its alignment with colonial "security interests," the vast majority of the 40,000 Canadians who volunteered to fight in the Civil War did so with the Union Army.^[174][175] Most Canadians fought as volunteers, although some were coerced into service by American recruiters or "crimpers". By the war's end, 29 Canadian Union Army officers were awarded the Medal of Honor.^[175]

Despite the Empire's neutrality, incidents like the

When the Union Army regained the initiative in 1863, Confederate President Jefferson Davis sent Jacob Thompson to create a northern front from Canada. With Confederate activities tolerated by Canadian authorities and citizens,^[180] Thompson set up bases in Montreal and Toronto. His plans included raiding prison camps to free Confederate prisoners and attacking Union ships in the Great Lakes. In 1864, Confederate raiders from Montreal launched the St. Albans Raid in Vermont. However, the raiders were chased back by local defenders to the border, where they were arrested by British soldiers.^[175]

Fenian raids

In the mid-1860s,

The first raid took place in April 1866, as Fenians landed on Campobello Island and razed several buildings. On 2 June, their largest raid, the Battle of Ridgeway, occurred, where 750–800 Fenians repelled nearly 900 Canadian militiamen, largely due to the latter's inexperience. However, the Fenians withdrew to the US shortly after, anticipating additional British and Canadian reinforcements. In the same month, another party of 200 Fenians was defeated near Pigeon Hill.^[185]

The threat of another raid in 1870 led the government to mobilize 13,000 volunteers. In May 1870, Fenian raiding parties were defeated at the battles of Eccles Hill and Trout River. In October 1871, 40 Fenians occupied a customs house near the Manitoba-Minnesota border, hoping to elicit support from Louis Riel and the Métis, but Riel raised volunteers to defend against them. The US Army later intervened and arrested the Fenians.^[185] By the 1870s, the US was unwilling to risk war with the UK and intervened when the Fenians threatened to endanger American neutrality.^[186]

While the militia prevented the Fenian from accomplishing its goals, the raids exposed deficiencies in leadership, structure, and training, prompting subsequent reforms in the militia.^[185]

British forces in Canada in the late–19th century

By the mid-1860s, British North American colonies faced mounting pressure to assume their own defences as the UK sought to alleviate themselves of the cost of defending them and to redeploy troops to more strategic areas. British pressure and the American Civil War prompted various colonies to consider forming a single federation. Although some questioned the need to unite post-American Civil War, subsequent raids by Fenians made more people in British North America favourable to Canadian Confederation, which was eventually realized in 1867.^[175][187]

In 1869, American grievances over British transgressions during the American Civil War became an issue, as the US demanded payment for said transgressions. A British delegation, including Canadian Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, negotiated the Treaty of Washington in 1871 to settle the issue.^[175] By 1871, most British North American colonies joined Canadian Confederation, and US grievances were settled. Consequently, British forces withdrew from Canada, except for Halifax and Esquimalt, where garrisons of the Pacific and North America and West Indies stations remained for reasons of imperial strategy.^[188] The Royal Navy continued to provide for Canada's maritime defence, with the understanding that they would provide additional aid in emergencies.^[189]

Canadian enlistment in British forces after 1871

Canadian enlistment in the British military continued after Confederation and the British Army's withdrawal in 1871. Several Canadians opted for British service over the Canadian militia, as the latter showed little interest in expeditionary combat.^[190] The British Army specifically targeted Canadians for recruitment to replenish certain units, like the 100th Regiment of Foot.^[162] Canadians continued joining the British Army's enlisted ranks into the First World War, with several thousand Canadians serving in British units during the conflict.^[191]

The British War Office also reserved officer commissions for Canadian "gentlemen and journeymen" to fill vacancies and bolster the British officer corps.^[192] The recruitment of Canadians into the British officer corps was encouraged by the War Office as a way to promote military interoperability between Canada and the UK, and to make the Canadian government more amicable to the idea of its military participating in British overseas campaigns.^[193] By 1892, about two-thirds of Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) graduates who received commissions opted to join the British military rather than the Canadian militia.^[194]

By 1900, RMC graduates in the British military had participated in 27 campaigns across Africa, Burma, India, and China.

By the mid-19th century, the militia system in the Province of Canada was organized into two classes, sedentary and

The Active Militia began as an unpaid voluntary service but evolved into a paid part-time service under the Militia Act of 1855, comprising the Volunteer Militia, the Regular Militia, and the Marine Militia. The Volunteer Militia included artillery, cavalry, and infantry units. The Regular Militia comprised former serving men eligible for emergency service through balloting. The Marine Militia consisted of individuals employed to navigate Canada's waterways.^[136] In 1862, proposed legislation to enhance the sedentary militia ignited a debate over whether the colony should rely on a compulsory or voluntary service. Following the 1863 general election, a new Militia Act was passed, shifting the burden of defence to the Active Militia while also preserving the sedentary militia.^[196][135] The militia system was adopted into the Canadian federation through the 1868 Militia Act.^[135] After the British Army's departure in 1871, the Canadian militia shouldered the main responsibility for its defence.^[136]

The Active Militia underwent professionalization in the 1870s and 1880s, with the establishment of two professional artillery batteries in 1871.^[197] The Active Militia expanded under the 1883 Militia Act, authorizing a new cavalry troop, an additional artillery battery, and three infantry companies.^[136] These were intended to provide the professional backbone of the Permanent Force, a full-time "continuous service" component of the Active Militia.^{[136][197][198]} While the Active Militia's professional elements grew in the 1870s and 1880s, its marine component dwindled, with the last marine militia unit disbanded in 1878.^[136] The sedentary militia also fell into disuse during this period as annual musters became less frequent. By 1883, the sedentary militia was nearly non-existent, with the requirement for annual musters stricken from legislation.^[135]

Nile Expedition

During the

Arriving in Asyut in October 1884, the voyageurs transported 5,000 British troops upstream to Khartoum using wooden whaling boats. They arrived two days after the city's capture by Mahdist forces. Canadian militia officers overseeing the voyageurs took part in the Battle of Kirbekan weeks later, although the voyageurs themselves did not partake. After Kirbekan, the expedition withdrew to Egypt, departing in April 1885.^[202] Sixteen members of the Canadian contingent died during the campaign.^[201]

Late–19th century conflicts in western Canada

In October 1870, near present-day

In the late 19th century, Louis Riel spearheaded two

In response, the Canadian government mobilized 3,000 militiamen to quell the resistance.[209] General Frederick Middleton initially planned for the 3,000-person force to travel together by rail, but attacks at Battleford and Frog Lake forced him to send a 900-person force ahead of the main contingent. However, after the forward force was repelled at the Battle of Fish Creek, Middleton chose to wait for the rest of the contingent before successfully besieging Riel's outnumbered forces at the Battle of Batoche.^[208][210] Although Riel was captured at Batoche in May, resistance from Big Bear's followers persisted until 3 June at the Battle of Loon Lake.^[208] Canadian militia and NWMP casualties during the conflict include 58 killed and 93 wounded.^[211]

20th century

Boer War

Canadian forces arrived in South Africa after the initial phase of the conflict, including the British setbacks of Black Week. However, they garnered praise for leading the decisive final night attack at the Battle of Paardeberg, resulting in the Boers' surrender.^[218][219] At the Battle of Leliefontein in November 1900, three members of the Royal Canadian Dragoons were awarded the Victoria Cross for protecting the rear of a retreating force,^[220] marking the only occasion when a Canadian unit received three Victoria Crosses in a single action.^[221] One of the last major battles of the war involving Canadian units was the Battle of Hart's River in March 1902.^[218] During the conflict, Canadian forces were also involved in maintaining British-run concentration camps.^[222]

Around 8,600 Canadians volunteered for service during the Boer War.^[223] About 7,400 Canadians,^[224] including 12 nursing sisters, served in South Africa.^[218][225] Of these, 224 died, 252 were wounded, and five were awarded the Victoria Cross.^[218][226] A wave of celebrations swept the country after the war, marked by many towns erecting their first public war memorials. However, the public debate over Canada's role in the conflict also strained relations between English and French Canada.^[218]

Early 20th century military developments

Discussions about reforming the Canadian Militia into a fully professional army arose during the Second Boer War.

At the turn of the century, Canada asserted greater control over its defences with the passage of a new Militia Act in 1904, appointing a Canadian Chief of the General Staff.^[136] Additionally, control of the Imperial fortress of Halifax and Esquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard was transferred to Canada by the British military in 1906.^[231] The Militia Act of 1904 also formally acknowledged the obsolescence of the sedentary Reserve Militia by removing the provision that designated male inhabitants of military age as members, replacing it with a provision theoretically making them "liable to serve in the militia".^[135]

Creation of a Canadian navy

Canada initially maintained a small fishing protection force under the

A total of 619,636 people served in the Canadian military during the war. Of those, 59,544 were killed and 154,361 were wounded.[239]^[227] The conflict provided Canada with a greater degree of autonomy within the British Empire and a modest diplomatic presence at the Paris Peace Conference.^[239]

Canadian Expeditionary Force

The Canadian Militia was not mobilized. Instead, an separate Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) was raised for the conflict.^[240] The CEF comprised infantry battalions and the Canadian Cavalry Brigade, with recruitment handled by the militia. Canada also established the Canadian Forestry Corps to harvest wood from France and Scotland for the war effort.^[239]

The first Canadian contingent departed for Europe on October 3, 1914.^[239] The CEF's first large engagement was the Second Battle of Ypres from April–May 1915. At Ypres, Canadian soldiers withstood the first large-scale poison gas attack in history.^[241] In September 1915, after Ypres, the Canadian Corps was formed with the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France, consolidating the CEF.^[242] The corps expanded with the 3rd Canadian Division joining in December 1915, followed by the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916.^[242] The 5th Canadian Division, formed in February 1917, never fully formed and was disbanded in February 1918.^[242]

In early 1916, Canadian divisions participated in local actions like the

After Vimy Ridge, Canadian Lieutenant-General Arthur Currie assumed command of the corps. Under his leadership, the corps fought in the Battle of Hill 70 and the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917.^[239] In 1918, the corps was sent to Amiens to bolster the lines during the Hundred Days Offensive. Throughout the war's later stages, the corps earned a reputation as one of the most capable and esteemed formations on the Western Front.^[227] Throughout this period, the Canadian Corps participated in key battles such as Amiens and the Cambrai.^[239] The Canadian Corps' rapid advance from Amiens in August to Mons by the armistice on November 11th, is known as Canada's Hundred Days.^[243][244]

Air and sea operations

During the war, the Royal Canadian Navy primarily conducted coastal submarine patrols as part of the Atlantic U-boat campaign.^[239] Canada suffered from several maritime disasters during the war. The Halifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917, when a ship collision involving a munition ship loaded with explosives caused one of the largest human-made explosions before the detonation of the first atomic bomb. The disaster saw 11,000 casualties, including 2,000 dead, and the entire north end of the city destroyed.^[245] The sinking of HMHS Llandovery Castle by a U-boat in June 1918 marks the deadliest Canadian naval disaster of the war.^[246]

Besides the Canadian military, Canadians served in British forces such as the Royal Navy and the Royal Flying Corps. By war's end, nearly a quarter of all Royal Flying Corps pilots were Canadian, including the Empire's leading flying ace, Billy Bishop.^[239]

Conscription

While there was an initial surge of enthusiastic volunteers in 1914, by 1916, enthusiasm to enlist waned.^[239] At the 1917 Imperial War Cabinet, Britain urged its dominions to send more troops to address manpower issues resulting from the collapse of the Russian Empire and the French Army mutinies.^[239]

Wishing to sustain Canada's military contributions, Prime Minister Robert Borden advocated for conscription in the 1917 Canadian federal election, sparking a national debate and crisis.^[247][248] Borden's Unionist Party, a coalition of pro-conscription Conservatives and Liberals, won the election. They passed the Military Service Act, 1917, although numerous reasons for exemptions were included in its provisions.^[239][249] After conscription was implemented in 1918, over 400,000 individuals were called up, although 380,510 appealed it. Ultimately, only 24,132 conscripts were sent to Europe.^[239]

Conscription sparked mixed reactions, with English Canada generally in favour, while French Canadians, some English-speaking farmers, trade union leaders, pacifists, and Indigenous leaders opposed it.^[239][250] The conscription crisis highlighted divisions between English and French Canada.^[251]

Commemoration

The war's impact led to the construction of several war memorials in Canada. Although proposals for a national memorial emerged in 1923, actual work didn't commence until the 1930s. The Canadian National War Memorial was finished in 1933 and unveiled in Ottawa in 1939.^[252] The monument has since been used to honour Canadian war dead for other conflicts.^[252] There are also eight memorials in France and Belgium to honour Canada's war dead from the war, like the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.^[253]

Distinct memorials honour the contributions of Newfoundland soldiers, then a

Following the end of the First World War, the Canadian Expeditionary Force was disbanded, and its lineage was perpetuated through Canadian militia after the latter's reorganization. In 1921, the Active Militia was also reorganized, with Permanent Force becoming the Permanent Active Militia, and the Active Militia's military reserve component becoming the Non-Permanent Active Militia. An officers' roll for the sedentary Reserve Militia was also maintained, although the Reserve Militia itself remained unorganized. In 1922, the National Defence Act was passed, bringing together the Department of Militia and Defence, and the air and naval service portfolio under a single Department of National Defence.^[136]

The greater degree of autonomy Canada saw after the First World War, combined with a growing public reluctance to engage in additional imperial conflicts, influenced the Canadian government's decision to reject the British request for military aid during the 1922 Chanak Crisis.^[239][255]

Intervention in Russia

Acceding to the British request for aid, the Canadian government dispatched nearly 6,000 soldiers to assist the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in mid-1918.

The first volunteer contingent of Canadian officers was dispatched to Murmansk in May 1918, providing administrative and instructional duties as a part of a larger Allied contingent in northwest Russia.^[259] Further requests for aid resulted in the 16th Canadian Field Artillery being deployed to Arkhangelsk,^[260] and CSEF to Vladivostok in October.^[258] However, the end of the First World War in November sparked debate in King's Privy Council for Canada about the ongoing military presence in Russia, resulting in a decision to extend the commitment until spring 1919, with the condition that the use of Canadian forces only occurred with explicit consent from the Canadian government.^[258]

Some Canadians saw combat in northwest Russia and as pilots over the Black Sea.^[256] However, Canadian troops attached to CSEF in Vladivostok — the majority of Canadian soldiers in Russia — saw little combat before they withdrew.^[261] CSEF soldiers began their withdrawal from Russia in April 1919.^[258] The 16th Canadian Field Artillery Brigade withdrew from northwest Russia in June 1919.^[262] In total, 21 Canadians died during the Allied intervention in Russia, the majority from disease or accidents.^[258]

Establishing an air force

The First World War was the catalyst for the formation of Canada's air force. At the outbreak of war, there was no independent Canadian air force, although many Canadians flew with the British Royal Flying Corps and the

During the 1920s the British government encouraged Canada to institute a peacetime air force by providing several surplus aircraft. In 1920 a new Canadian Air Force (CAF) directed by the Air Board was formed as a part-time or militia service providing flying refresher training.^[268] After a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. Air Board and CAF civil flying responsibilities were handled by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) after its creation in April 1924.^[264] The Second World War would see the RCAF become a truly military service.^[264]

Spanish Civil War

The Canadian government did not officially become involved in the

The

In December 1941, two Canadian battalions known as C Force took part in the Battle of Hong Kong,^[282] while the 2nd Canadian Division led the Dieppe Raid in August 1942.^[283] In the same year, the First Canadian Army was formed and spent most of its time in the UK, training for an invasion of northwest Europe.^[284]

In July 1943, the 1st Canadian Division and the 5th Canadian Division were heavily engaged in the

The Canadian Army also took part in

During the war, the Royal Canadian Navy grew significantly in size, with 471 combat ships, 99,688 men and some 6,500 women serving in the navy by the war's end.^[275] The navy was tasked with protecting supply and troop convoys from U-boat wolfpacks in the Battle of the Atlantic.^[292] RCN warships are credited with sinking 33 enemy submarines during the war. After the Atlantic Convoy Conference in March 1943, the Canadian Northwest Atlantic Command was set up to coordinate Allied convoys north of New York City and was placed under the command of Rear-Admiral Leonard W. Murray.^[275] In addition to the Atlantic campaign, RCN warships also took part in the Dunkirk evacuation, the Allied landing in North Africa, and the Normandy landings.^[275][293] During the war, the navy lost 24 warships, the largest of which was HMCS Athabaskan, a Tribal-class destroyer.^[275] One RCN warship, the light cruiser HMCS Uganda, also participated in the Pacific War as a part of the British Pacific Fleet.^[294] In addition to the RCN, many Canadians also served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.^[295]

The Royal Canadian Air Force also contributed to the war effort. However, early overseas commitments by the RCAF were hampered by the management of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), an agreement between the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to train aircrews.^[275] Although Canada had agreed to host the majority of BCATP's facilities and finance three-quarters of its costs, the British had expected BCATP graduates to move on to the British Royal Air Force (RAF). However, Mackenzie King's intervention saw some Canadian BCATP graduates move on as members of the RCAF.^[296] Because of this early dynamic though, a large number of Canadian BCATP graduates served in RAF units like No. 242 (Canadian) Squadron RAF,^[281] as opposed to an RCAF unit.^[275] At its peak, there were 107 schools and 184 ancillary BCATP units across Canada. By the end of 1945, 131,553 pilots graduated from BCATP in Canada and flew with either the RAF, RCAF or with another British Commonwealth and Allied air force.^[296]

Although the BCATP delayed the development of overseas RCAF units, by the end of the war there were 48 RCAF squadrons stationed abroad. RCAF squadrons partook in the Battle of Britain,^[297] and the Combined Bomber Offensive over the European theatre.^[275] By the war's end, Canadian airmen were present in every major theatre of war, from North Africa, Italy, northwest Europe, and the Pacific.^[298] RCAF squadrons based in Canada were also active during the war, partaking in the Aleutian Islands campaign and conducting anti-submarine operations in the Atlantic. During the war, 232,632 men and 17,030 women served in the RCAF, of whom 17,101 died.^[275] By the end of the war, the RCAF was the fourth-largest Allied air force.^[299]

Industry and research

In contrast to the First World War, Canadian industries in the Second World War produced a variety of war materials, including small arms, warships, aircraft, and other vehicles; a total of 815,729 were built. Over half of all war material produced in Canada was sent to the UK, with the Canadian government arranging for the Billion Dollar Gift package to help the UK finance those acquisitions. The demand for labour saw many women enter the workforce for the first time, taking jobs vacated by enlisted men.^[275] The Canadian Women's Army Corps and the RCAF Women's Division were also formed relieve male military members for front-line duties.^[300]

During the war, Canada aided British and American efforts to develop an

The

When the

The Canadian Army had to spend several months mobilizing its forces back to wartime strength after it went through a period of rapid demilitarization after World War II.^[312] Mounting domestic pressure for a larger commitment led to the Canadian Army to form Special Force (later renamed the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade) for service in Korea.^[308] The first Canadian Army units arrived in Korea in December 1950, having arrived after the early campaigns of the war and when the attrition phase of the conflict was beginning.^[308][313] For army units, the war was described as a "war of patrols" in rough, mountainous terrain. However, the Canadian Army also participated in several heavier engagements including the Battle of Kapyong and the Battle of Kowang-san.^[308]

Canada sent 26,791 troops to fight in Korea.^[314] There were 1,558 Canadian casualties, including 516 dead.^[315] Hostilities ceased as a result of the 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement.^[316] After the armistice, Canada maintained a garrison in the region to patrol the Korean Demilitarized Zone. The garrison was maintained until 1955, with the last Canadian soldiers under the United Nations Command leaving the region in 1957.^[308]

Forces in Europe

The Cold War was the first time the Canadian military stationed units abroad during peacetime. The Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force maintained a contingent in Western Europe from the early 1950s to 1993. Approximately 100,000 members of the Canadian military served in France and West Germany during the Cold War. The army's and air force's contingent was known as Canadian Forces Europe.^[317]

As a part of Canada's commitment to NATO, the

Canada also formed the

The army and air force also formed the Canadian Air-Sea Transportable Brigade Group (CAST), a 5,000-person "at-home" brigade that was formed in 1968 to support Canadian commitments in Europe. Although it was stationed in Canada, the brigade was supposed to have the capability to deploy to Norway with 30 days' notice. CAST only deployed once to Norway for a military exercise in 1986, before it was disbanded in 1989.^[317]

Unification of Canada's military

The unification of Canada's military was explored as early as the 1930s. Several elements were unified by the 1940s and 1950s, including its military colleges, and some administrative elements.^[320] Full unification of the military was pursued in the 1960s under national defence minister, Paul Hellyer, who believed it would prevent inefficient duplication of services, and cut costs.^[321][322] In 1964, the National Defence Act was amended to restructure the three services under a new unified command structure, replacing the three service chiefs with one Chief of the Defence Staff. With the enactment of the Canadian Forces Reorganization Act 1968, the three services ceased to exist as separate entities and became branches of the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF).^[320]

Hellyer's attempts to unify Canada's military were only partially successful. Although support services and headquarter commands were fully unified, and the consolidation of some services to cut costs was praised; other changes, like the unification of ranking structure and service uniforms, made the process unpopular with certain members of the public and service members in the CAF. As a result of continued opposition to unification from the army, air force, and navy, by 2014, many of the changes introduced by Hellyer were reversed.^[320]

October Crisis

The October Crisis was triggered by the kidnapping of two government officials by Montreal-based

As a result of the War Measures Act, the FLQ was outlawed and civil liberties were suspended. The deployment of troops in Quebec continued until January 1971. By the end of the crisis, 12,500 Canadian Forces troops were deployed throughout Quebec, with 7,500 troops stationed in the Montreal area.[326]^[327] The federal government's use of the War Measures Act was controversial, as the majority of those arrested were unjustly detained. This partly contributed to the War Measures Act's replacement with the more limited Emergencies Act in 1988.^[323][324]

Vietnam War

As a "non-belligerent" during the Vietnam War (1955–1975), Canada played a limited role, serving as an "impartial and objective peacekeeper" on two international truce commissions, the International Control Commission and the International Commission of Control and Supervision.^[328] The Canadian military's involvement in the conflict was limited to a small contingent in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords.^[329] However, Canadian diplomats provided tacit support for US counterinsurgency and espionage efforts in Vietnam. Canadian diplomats later argued its partisan efforts were to counterbalance the activities of Eastern bloc countries who were also members of the truce commissions.^[330] During the war, Canadian firms sold at least $12.5 billion of war material to the US, including machinery, munitions, clothing and food, and raw materials. Testing of Agent Orange, a tactical herbicide used in Vietnam, also took place in Canada.^[330]

Throughout the conflict, Canada also saw an influx of American

During the 1990s, the Canadian Armed Forces responded to several international crises as a part of a multinational force, as well as deployed within Canada to provide aid during natural disasters.

Domestically, the Forces deployed over 8,500 military personnel to Manitoba after the

The Oka Crisis was a

Canada had condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and quickly agreed to join the US-led UN coalition.^[341] Over 5,100 Canadian military personnel served in the war. At its peak, 2,700 personnel were in the region at one time. Canadian Forces operations were coordinated under Operation Friction. The Gulf War was the first conflict where female members of the Canadian Armed Forces served in combat roles.^[342]

In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed a naval task to the coalition, made up of the destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan, and supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur.^[341] The Canadian Task Group led the coalition maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf.^[343] About a quarter of all inspections of vessles suspected of running the coalition blockade were done by Canadian warships.^[342] A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in-theatre after hostilities had ceased and were the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.^[343]

After the UN authorized use of force against Iraq, Canada deployed a

Canadian Armed Forces were deployed during the

As the UN presence was not welcomed by some warring factions, the mission was unable to gain the cooperation of local warlords, enforce a ceasefire, or force an end to the conflict. As a result, the mission was unable to restore order, and was only able to protect food and medical aid distribution sites.[350]

Canadian forces were primarily based in Beledweyne and had rebuilt infrastructure, removed landmines, and guarded aid convoys.^[350] However, the mission eventually became a political disaster for Canada.^[352] Canadian soldiers performing the aforementioned duties were frequently harassed, with their encampment the target of looters. In response, the Canadian commander authorized looters to be shot in the leg if they ran. Another officer later permitted thieves to be "captured and abused."^[353] In March 1993, soldiers from the Canadian Airborne Regiment killed a civilian that was escaping after breaking into their encampment to steal supplies. A week after, members of the airborne regiment tortured and killed a 16-year-old youth that broke into the encampment.^[350][354]

Alleged attempts to cover up the killings by senior officials at the

Since 1991, nearly 40,000 members of the Canadian Armed Forces and civilian police services, including the

During the early 21st century, Canada participated in several missions and campaigns in support of the

Several weeks after the

After the invasion, Canadian units served under NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The Canadian Armed Forces provided a battle group of 2,000 infantry, as well as armoured, artillery, and aerial tactical and transport elements to ISAF. From 2003 to 2005, the battle group was based in Kabul and was tasked with providing security and disarming Afghan militias.^[362] In November 2005, the CAF launched Operation Archer and shifted its focus from Kabul to Kandahar.^[368] The battle group was transferred to Kandahar in 2006 and was responsible for counter-insurgency operations and the region's Provincial Reconstruction Team. While in Kandahar, the battle group won a series of battles, like Operation Medusa and the Battle of Panjwaii.^[369] However, they were unable to root out the insurgents in the region, who were able to take refuge on the Pakistani side of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border.^[362]

Public support for the war in Canada waned as casualties mounted in late 2006.

Over 40,000 Canadian soldiers served in the 12-year mission in Afghanistan, the longest campaign the Canadian military has participated in. There were 165 Canadians killed during the conflict, including 158 soldiers and seven civilians.[362] The conflict also resulted in the first female member of the Canadian Armed Forces to be killed in combat, Captain Nichola Goddard of the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery.^[374]

Libyan Civil War

On 25 February 2011, the Canadian Forces launched Operation Mobile, an evacuation mission in response to the

At its peak, 655 Canadians were deployed on Operation Mobile. Canada committed several aircraft to the intervention, including seven CF-18 fighter jets based in Italy. The frigate HMCS Charlottetown, who was already on station in the Mediterranean as part of Standing NATO Maritime Group 1, also joined the operation and patrolled the waters off Misrata to support the UN arms embargo. In May 2011, Charlottetown was attacked by a shore battery, becoming the first Canadian warship to come under hostile fire since the Korean War.^[375] On October 28, 2011, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the military mission had ended successfully.^[380]

Mali War

In 2012, several insurgent groups in Mali seized control of parts of the country. The Mali government requested military aid from France in January 2013, who in turn asked its NATO allies for assistance. Canada initially provided one

War against the Islamic State

In September 2014, Canada joined a global coalition to fight a war against the Islamic State.^[386] From November 2014 to February 2016, Canadian CF-18s conducted 251 airstrikes in Iraq and five in Syria.^[387] The Canadian Armed Forces ceased its combat activities in February 2016, and the operation was reoriented into a training mission.^[388][389] After 2016, Canada scaled back its contribution, with only 250 personnel providing training and tactical air support for the mission as of January 2023,^[390][391] The mission's deployments are spread between its logistics hub in Kuwait, and its training missions in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon.^[390]

Canadian special forces were deployed to assist with the training mission.

Canada has served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every United Nations (UN) peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.^[395] More than 125,000 Canadians have served in international peacekeeping operations, with approximately 130 Canadians having died during these operations.^[396] Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.^{[397][398][399]}

Canada's role in the development of and participation in

Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping efforts resulting in a military reassessment in the late 1990s.[407] By the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).^[408] This military reallocation resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.^[409]

See also

• History of Canadian foreign policy
• List of Canadian military operations
• List of Canadian military victories
• List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients
• List of conflicts in Canada
• List of French forts in North America
• List of wars involving Canada
• Military history of the Acadians
• Military history of the Mi'kmaq
• Military history of Nova Scotia

References