Canada in World War I
The military history of Canada during World War I began on August 4, 1914, when the United Kingdom entered the First World War (1914–1918) by declaring war on Germany. The British declaration of war automatically brought Canada into the war, because of Canada's legal status as a British Dominion which left foreign policy decisions in the hands of the British parliament.[1] However, the Canadian government had the freedom to determine the country's level of involvement in the war.[1][2] On August 4, 1914, the Governor General declared a war between Canada and Germany. The Militia was not mobilized and instead an independent Canadian Expeditionary Force was raised.[3]
Canada's sacrifices and contributions to the Great War changed its history and enabled it to become more independent, while also opening a deep rift between the French and English speaking populations. For the first time in Canadian military history, Canadian forces fought as a distinct unit, first under a British commander but ultimately under a Canadian-born commander.[4] The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the Great War came during the Somme, Vimy, and Passchendaele battles and what later became known as "Canada's Hundred Days".[5] Canada's total casualties stood at the end of the war at 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded, out of an expeditionary force of 620,000 people mobilized (39 per cent of mobilized were casualties).[6]
Canadians of British descent—the majority—gave widespread support arguing that Canadians had a duty to fight on behalf of their Motherland. Indeed, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, although French-Canadian, spoke for the majority of English-Canadians when he proclaimed: "It is our duty to let Great Britain know and to let the friends and foes of Great Britain know that there is in Canada but one mind and one heart and that all Canadians are behind the Mother Country." However this did not stop Laurier along with Henri Bourassa from leading the opposition to conscription three years later in 1917.[7] Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden offered assistance to Great Britain, which was quickly accepted.
Beginning
Preparations
Prior to the war, military land forces were organized as the
Although the Chief of the General Staff, Willoughby Gwatkin, had been planning for a mass mobilization of Canadian Militia for some time, the mobilization plans were scrapped in favour of mobilizing a completely new land force, the Canadian Expeditionary Force, to be based on numbered battalions and reporting to a separate ministry, the Ministry of Overseas Forces of Canada. Although the force was raised quickly, it was riven with political patronage and lacked a solid core of professional officers and NCOs.
Participation
600,000 men and women participated in the war by enlisting as nurses, soldiers and chaplains.
Field formations
Canadian Corps
The Canadian Corps was formed as a field formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France.[19] The soldiers of the corps were mostly volunteers,[20] as conscription was not implemented until the end of the war (see Conscription Crisis of 1917).[21] The corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916.[22] The organization of a 5th Canadian Division began in February 1917, but it was still not fully formed when it was broken up in February 1918 and its men used to reinforce the other four divisions.[22] Although the corps was within and under the command of the British Army, there was considerable pressure among Canadian leaders, especially following the Battle of the Somme, for the corps to fight as a single unit rather than spreading the divisions through the whole army.
Originally commanded by
Canadian Cavalry Brigade
The Canadian Cavalry Brigade arrived in France in 1915. Initially having three Canadian regiments and one British, in January 1916, it became an all-Canadian formation. The brigade was deployed separately from the Canadian Corps and was under the command of various British cavalry divisions. The brigade engaged in several battles, notably the Battle of Moreuil Wood 30 April 1918.
Western Front
1915
Neuve Chapelle
The
Although the British were unable to exploit their advantage due to poor communication, it taught Canadians that artillery bombardment was too light to suppress the enemy trenches; that better artillery observation points were necessary; that reserves were too few to follow up success quickly; and most importantly, that the procedure of transmitting information and sending orders to the advanced troops was slow and difficult, and that the systems of communication were much too vulnerable.[28]
Second Battle of Ypres
In the first week of April 1915 the soldiers of the
All through the night, the Canadians fought to close this gap. On 24 April, the Germans launched another poison gas attack, this time at the Canadian line.[31] In those 48 hours of battle, the Canadians suffered over 6,000 casualties, one man in every three, of whom more than 2,000 died.[31]
1916
Battle of the Somme
The next area where Canadians fought was at the Battle of the Somme from the latter half of 1916. Initially launched as a campaign to relieve pressure from the beleaguered French forces at the Battle of Verdun, the Allied casualties actually exceeded those at Verdun.[32]
The battle began on 1 July 1916, and among the first troops to leave their trenches were the men of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. Newfoundland at the time was not a part of the Canadian confederation but was considered a separate dominion; as a result, the Newfoundlanders advanced as part of the 29th Division, not the Canadian Corps. The attack went very poorly for the Newfoundlanders, resulting in massive casualties – of the 801 men that made up the regiment just the day before, only 68 reported for roll call on 2 July, and every officer that had gone over the top had been killed.[33]
The Canadian Corps entered the battle in September when it was tasked to secure the small town of Courcelette, France.[34] In the major offensive which began at dawn on September 15 the Canadian Corps, on the extreme left of the attack, assaulted on a 2,200-yard sector west of the village of Courcelette. By November 11, the 4th Canadian Division finally secured most of the German trenches in Courcelette and then rejoined the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge.
The Battle of the Somme claimed more than 24,000 Canadian casualties.
1917
Battle of Vimy Ridge
For the first time, all four Canadian divisions were to be assembled to operate in combat as a corps. The Canadian divisions were joined by the British 5th Infantry Division, and reinforced by artillery, engineer and labour units.[37] The Canadian Corps was supported to the north by the 24th British Division of I Corps which advanced north of the Souchez river and by the advancing XVII Corps to the south.[38] The attack began at 5:43 a.m. on Easter Monday, 9 April 1917 whereupon every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing. Light field guns laid down a barrage which advanced in predetermined increments, often 100 yards (91 m) every three minutes, while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead, against known defensive systems.[39]
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective, the Black Line, by 6:25 a.m.[40] The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble in its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.[40] After a planned pause, in which positions were consolidated, the advance resumed. Shortly after 7:00 a.m., the 1st Canadian Division had taken half of its second objective, the Red Line, and moved a brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder.[41] The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the town of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time.[42] Units at the 3rd Canadian Division reached their section of the Red Line at around 7:30 a.m.[43] However, due to an exposed left flank caused by the failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge, the 3rd Canadian Division was forced to stop and establish a divisional defensive flank to its north.[44] It was not until 11:00 a.m. that the defending German 79th Reserve Division mounted a counterattack, by which time only the 4th Canadian Division had not reached its objective.[45]
Three fresh brigades were moved up to the Red Line by 9:30 a.m., 10 April to support the advance whereupon they leapfrogged existing units occupying the Red line and advanced to the Blue Line.[46] By approximately 11:00 a.m., the Blue Line, including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus, had been captured.[47] The advance briefly halted, the artillery barrage remaining stationary for 90 minutes to give troops time to consolidate the Blue Line and bring supporting machine guns forward.[48] Shortly before 1 p.m., the advance recommenced with the Brown Line being secure around 2:00 p.m.[49] By this point only the northern half of Hill 145 and "the Pimple", a fortified highpoint outside of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, remained under German control. Fresh troops finally forced the remaining German troops from the northern half of Hill 145 at around 3:15 p.m. and by nightfall of 10 April, the only objective not yet achieved was the capture of "the Pimple".[50] Supported by a significant amount of artillery and the 24th British Division of I Corps to the north, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked the hastily entrenched German troops and captured "the Pimple" on 12 April, bringing an end to the battle.[51] By nightfall on 12 April 1917 the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.
The corps had suffered 10,602 casualties; 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.
Battle of Passchendaele
The four divisions of the
The first stage began on the morning of 26 October.[58] The 3rd Canadian Division was assigned the northern flank which included the sharply rising ground of the Bellevue spur. South of the Ravebeek creek, the 4th Canadian Division would take the Decline Copse which straddled the Ypres-Roulers railway.[59] The 3rd Canadian Division captured the Wolf Copse and secured its objective line but was ultimately forced to drop a defensive flank to link up with the flanking division of the British Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division initially captured all its objectives, but gradually retreated from the Decline Copse due to German counterattacks and mis-communications between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.[60]
The second stage began on 30 October and was intended to capture the positions not captured in the previous stage and gain a base for the final assault on Passchendaele.[60] The southern flank was to capture the strongly held Crest Farm while the northern flank was to capture the hamlet of Meetcheele as well as the Goudberg area near the Canadian Corps' northern boundary.[61] The southern flank quickly captured Crest Farm and begun sending patrols beyond its objective line and into Passchendaele itself. The northern flank was again met with exceptional German resistance. The 3rd Canadian Division captured Vapour Farm at the corps' boundary, Furst Farm to the west of Meetcheele and the crossroads at Meetcheele, but remained short of its objective line.[61]
To permit time to facilitate inter-divisional reliefs, there was a planned seven-day pause between the second and third stage. British Second Army was ordered to take over section of the British Fifth Army front adjoining the Canadian Corps, so that the central portion of the assault could proceed under a single command.[62] Three consecutive rainless days between 3 and 5 November aided logistical preparations and reorganization of the troops for the next stage.[63] The third stage began the morning of 6 November with the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions having taken over the front, relieving the 3rd and 4th Canadian Divisions respectively. Less than three hours after the start of the assault, many units had reached their final objective lines and the town of Passchendaele had been captured.
A final successful action to gain the remaining high ground north of the village in the vicinity of Hill 52 was launched 11 November.[64] This attack on 11 November brought to an end the long drawn-out Third Battle of Ypres. The Second Battle of Passchendaele cost the Canadian Corps 15,654 casualties with over 4 000 dead, in 16 days of fighting.[65][66]
1918
Hundred Days Offensive
Throughout these three final months, the Canadian troops saw action in several areas. The first was near the enemy salient on August 8 where the Canadian Corps (along with the New Zealanders, Australians, French and British) was charged with the task of spearheading the assault on the German forces in Amiens. In the subsequent battle, the morale of the German forces was badly shaken. In
Between August 26 and September 2, the Canadian Corps launched multiple attacks near the German front at
Though incredibly successful, this period was also very costly, as the Canadian Corps suffered 46,000 casualties in the final hundred days of the Great War. The last Canadian to be killed was Private George Lawrence Price, two minutes before the armistice took effect at 11 am. on November 11.[69] He is traditionally recognized as being the last British soldier and second last soldier killed in World War I.[69]
Atlantic campaign
At the outbreak of the First World War on 5 August 1914, two government vessels, CGS Canada (renamed
During the fall of 1914, HMCS Rainbow patrolled the west coast of North America, as far south as Panama, although these patrols became less important following the elimination of the German naval threat in the Pacific with the December 1914 defeat of Admiral Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Squadron off the Falkland Islands.[70] Many of Rainbow's crew were posted to the east coast for the remainder of the war and by 1917 Rainbow was withdrawn from service.[71]
The early part of the war also saw HMCS Niobe actively patrolling off the coast of New York City as part of British blockading forces, but she returned to Halifax permanently in July 1915 when she was declared no longer fit for service and was converted to a depot ship. She was heavily damaged in the December 1917 Halifax Explosion.[72]
CC-1 and CC-2 spent the first three years of the war patrolling the Pacific; however, the lack of German threat saw them reposted to Halifax in 1917. With their tender, HMCS Shearwater, they became the first warships to transit the Panama Canal flying the White Ensign (the RCN's service flag). Arriving in Halifax on 17 October 1917, they were declared unfit for service and never patrolled again, being scrapped in 1920.
In June 1918, the Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was deliberately sunk by a U-boat which machine gunned survivors on the water. In terms of the number of dead, the sinking was the most significant Canadian naval disaster of the First World War.
On 5 September 1918, the
Home Front
Conscription
The underlying tension between French and British Canada exploded during World War I.
Of the 120,000 conscripts raised in the war, only 47,000 were actually sent overseas[citation needed]. Despite this, the rift between French- and English-speaking Canadians was indelible and would last for many years to come.
Indian nationalists
Saboteurs
From the start of the war, the Canadian government investigated many rumours of a large German attack across the
Taken more seriously was the proposal to sabotage trains carrying Japanese troops which, the
One who did not appear, Werner Horn, thus did not know that the mission was cancelled. In the
Women
During the First World War Canadian women took part in the war in a variety of ways, including home from factory work, fundraising and serving as nurses overseas. These women had a large impact on the war effort both from home and on the front lines. Others worked to support soldiers. They volunteered to knit socks, roll bandages, and wrap food parcels for the troops. Women put on variety shows and used the money to buy supplies that were needed overseas. The shortage of men made it necessary for women to work outside the home. They often took jobs that were known as men's work. They worked in banks, insurance firms, civil service, and as gas jockeys, street-car conductors and fish cannery workers. Even though they performed the same jobs as men, they were paid less. When prime minister Robert Borden ordered compulsory military service in May 1917, many women were called upon to run farms, build aircraft and ships, and work in munitions factories. By the end of the war they had earned the right to vote, and were gaining independence in society.[81]
Influence on Canada
National identity
The impact of the First World War on the evolution of Canada's identity is debated by historians. There is general agreement that in the early twentieth century, most
Other historians add that Canadian nationalism and belief in independence from the British Empire was strongest in
Some historians suggest that Canada was already beginning to move toward greater autonomy from Britain well before 1914. They note that Canada’s government established a
While there is a consensus that on the eve of World War I, most White English-speaking Canadians had a hybrid imperial-national identity, the effects of the war on Canada's emergence as a nation are contested. The Canadian media often refer to World War I and, in particular, the Battle of Vimy Ridge, as marking "the birth of a nation."[87] Some historians consider the First World War to be Canada's "war of independence"[88] and the most important event in Canadian history, ahead of World War II and comparable in effect to the American Civil War on the United States.[89] They argue that the war reduced the extent to which Canadians identified with the British Empire and intensified their sense of being Canadians first and British subjects second. These historians posit two possible mechanisms whereby World War I intensified Canadian nationalism, that pride in Canada's accomplishments on the battlefield promoted Canadian patriotism; and that the war distanced Canada from Britain in that Canadians reacted to the sheer slaughter on the Western Front by adopting an increasingly anti-British attitude.
Other historians robustly dispute the view that World War I undermined the hybrid imperial-national identity of English-speaking Canada. Phillip Buckner writes that: "The First World War shook but did not destroy this Britannic vision of Canada. It is a
Still other historians point out that the war’s impact on Canadians’ perception of their place in the world was limited by the simple fact that so many of the Canadian Expeditionary Force soldiers were British-born rather than Canadians. Geoffrey Hayes, Andrew Iarocci, and Mike Bechthold point out that about half of the CEF members who fought at the famous battle of Vimy Ridge were British immigrants. Moreover, their victory at the ridge involved close cooperation with artillery and other units recruited in the British Isles.[92] 70 percent of the men who enlisted in the CEF were British immigrants, even though British immigrants were just 11 percent of Canada's population. Anglo-Saxon Canadians whose ancestors had lived in North America for generations had low enlistment rates similar to those seen in French Canadian communities.[93]
Historian José Igartua argues that the hybrid imperialist-nationalist identity in English Canada collapsed in the 1950s and 1960s, not during or immediately after the First World War. It was in this period that Canada adopted its current flag and began to oppose Britain on substantive foreign policy issues, as it did in the 1956 Suez Crisis.[94] Historian C.P. Champion argues that Canada's Britishness was not eliminated in the 1960s but survives to the present day in more subtle forms. He cites the new flag, whose red and white echo the colours of England and Kingston's Royal Military College.[95]
Art and literature
- "In Flanders Fields" by Canadian Expeditionary Force member John McCrae may be the best-known poem among Canadians. Written after the Second Battle of Ypres, it and the remembrance poppy it inspired have become symbols of Remembrance Day throughout the Commonwealth.[96]
- Rilla of Ingleside (1921), the next-to-last book in Lucy Maud Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables series, uses the war as a backdrop. The book chronicles the experiences of Anne and her family at home in Canada in the war while waiting for the return of Anne's three sons, all of whom are fighting overseas. The book is the only contemporary novel about the war from the perspective of Canadian women.
See also
- Canadian pipers in World War I
- Canadian war memorials
- List of Canadian battles during World War I
- List of Canadian soldiers executed during World War I
- List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients
- History of the Royal Canadian Navy
- History of Canadian foreign relations
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- ^ "1916 – Prelude to the Somme". Canada and the First World War. Veterans Affairs Canada. Archived from the original on 2006-04-29.
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Official bibliography
- National Defence and the Canadian Forces
- Brereton Greenhous; Stephen J. Harris (1992) Canada And The Battle Of Vimy Ridge, 9–12 April 1917 Minister Supply and Service (Downloadable PDF) ISBN 0-660-93654-2
- Duguid, A.F, (1938) Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War, 1914–1919, Vol I Part I King's Printer, Ottawa, (Downloadable PDF)
- Duguid, A.F, (1938) Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War, 1914–1919, Vol I Part 2 King's Printer, Ottawa, (Downloadable PDF)
- Nicholson, G.W.L. (1964) Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1919 Archived 2014-08-08 at the Wayback Machine, Duhamel, Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF)
- Macphail, Sir Andrew (1925) Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War: The Medical Services, F.A. Acland, King's Printer, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF)
- Ministry of Overseas Military Forces (1919) Report of the Ministry Overseas Military Forces of Canada – 1918, London : H.M. Stationery Office (Downloadable PDF)
- Snell, A.E. (1924) The C.A.M.C. with the Canadian Corps during the Last Hundred Days of the Great War, F.A. Acland, King's Printer, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF)
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0-88762-253-3
- Bechthold, Mike (2007), "In the Shadow of Vimy Ridge: The Canadian Corps in April and May 1917", in Hayes, Geoffrey; Iarocci, Andrew; Bechthold, Mike (eds.), Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, pp. 239–264, ISBN 978-0-88920-508-6
- Brown, Robert Craig; MacKenzie, David Clark (2005), Canada and the First World War: essays in honour of Robert Craig Brown, University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-3573-6
- Campbell, David (2007), "The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle'", in Hayes, Geoffrey; Iarocci, Andrew; Bechthold, Mike (eds.), Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, pp. 171–192, ISBN 978-0-88920-508-6
- Busch, Briton Cooper (2003), Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association papers, McGill-Queen's University Press ISBN 0-7735-2546-7
- Cassar, George H (2010), Hell in Flanders Fields: Canadians at the Second Battle of Ypres, Dundurn Press ISBN 978-1-55488-728-6
- ISBN 0-7748-0739-3
- Freeman, Bill; Nielsen, Richard (1998), Far from home: Canadians in the First World War, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, ISBN 0-07-086118-8
- ISBN 978-0-88920-508-6
- Granatstein, J. L. (2004), Hell's corner : an illustrated history of Canada's Great War, 1914–1918, Douglas & McIntyre ISBN 1-55365-047-6
- Hayes, Geoffrey (2007), "The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory", in Hayes, Geoffrey; Iarocci, Andrew; Bechthold, Mike (eds.), Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, pp. 193–210, ISBN 978-0-88920-508-6
- Kordan, Bohdan S. (2002), Enemy aliens, prisoners of war: internment in Canada during the Great War, McGill-Queen's University Press ISBN 0-7735-2350-2
- Turner, Alexander (2005), Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras Osprey Publ ISBN 1841768715
Historiography
- Shoebottom, Brad. "The First World War and the Homefront in Canada: Broadening the Analysis." Acadiensis: Journal of the History of the Atlantic Region/Revue d'histoire de la region atlantique 50.1 (2021): 149-163.
External links
- First World War at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography
- J. L. Granatstein: Canada, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Oliver, Dean F.: Warfare 1914-1918 (Canada) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Wood, James A.: Pre-war Military Planning (Canada) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Iarocci, Andrew: Science and Technology (Canada) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Sharpe, Christopher: Recruitment and Conscription (Canada) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Cook, Tim, Stewart, William: War Losses (Canada) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Marti, Steve: Dominions’ Military Relationship to Great Britain 1902-1914 (British Dominions) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Canada and the First World War: 1914–1918 Archived 2016-03-11 at the Wayback Machine at Library and Archives Canada
- A City Goes to War – Canadian Cities during the Great War. This University of Victoria site currently includes data on Victoria BC.
- Canada and WWI – Canada and World War I.
- "Canada in the First World War and the Road to Vimy Ridge". Veteran Affairs Canada. 1992. Archived from the original on 2006-10-27. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
- Percy Carruthers Band fonds RG 562 Brock University Library Digital Repository
- Resources Related to World War I at the Archives of Ontario
- Montreal At War - A History of Montreal During the First World War