Military history of Europe

The military history of Europe refers to the history of

modern era to the second half of the 20th century, European militaries possessed a significant technological advantage, allowing its states to pursue policies of expansionism and colonization until the Cold War period. European militaries in between the fifteenth century and the modern period were able to conquer or subjugate almost every other nation in the world. Since the end of the Cold War, the European security environment has been characterized by structural dominance of the United States through its NATO commitments to the defense of Europe, as European states have sought to reap the 'peace dividend' occasioned by the end of the Cold War and reduce defense expenditures. European militaries now mostly undertake power projection missions outside the European continent. Recent military conflicts involving European nations include the 2001 War in Afghanistan, the 2003 War in Iraq, the 2011 NATO Campaign in Libya, and various other engagements in the Balkan and on the African continent. After 2014, the Russian annexation of Crimea and the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War prompted renewed scholarly interest into European military affairs.^[1] For further the context see History of Europe

.

Characteristics of regions

Due to the numerous countries that grew out of Medieval feudalism and de-centralization from the Western Roman Empire's fall, different nations have had a power struggle. The British Isles were more protected against land invasion from Continental Europe and as such have felt less damage from mainland Europe's struggles. In contrast, the area of Germany and its surrounding territories were at the center of many revolving conflicts. The area of Russia has been known as the 'sleeping giant' or 'great bear' due to it comparatively remaining passive militarily toward the rest of Europe prior to the 19th century and out of Western and Central Europe's affairs. The Roman Empire growing out of the Italian Peninsula has been called 'the first super power'. France having the natural barriers of the Rhine to the east, the Pyrenees to the south, and the English Channel to the north has tried to maintain these throughout its history with rivalry with Britain for centuries and then with Germany. Britain and France were the most successful in establishing a broad colonial empire spanning from Africa to Asia, with a majority of that success attributed to them being almost sealocked.

Ancient times

The era was dominated by the Mediterranean nations, most notably

Eastern Roman Empire still remained untouched until the late Middle Ages.^[2]

Medieval Period

The early parts of the medieval period known as the

black death was wreaking havoc through much of Europe. The medieval ages ended with the Western European conflict of the Hundred Years' War (1337 to 1453) that was primarily between England and France ending in French victory.^[3]

The Renaissance

Gunpowder small-arms ended cavalry superiority. The Italian Wars dominated the early part of this period. It originally started as a dynastic dispute but eventually involved all the European powers as a struggle for power and territory. The Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648 dominated Central Europe from the participation of all the major European powers resulting in German areas' virtual economic disintegration.

Gunpowder age

The

Danish-Prussian War (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866), and ending in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) that resulted in the unification of Germany forming the German Empire

.

World War I

World War I was a global war fought chiefly in Europe from 1914 to 1918.^[4]

Interwar era

After World War I, the major European experienced two decades of relative peace. The

Polish-Soviet War that lasted from 1919 to 1921 and an ongoing conflict with Finland. The Irish War of Independence was fought from 1919-1921, a guerrilla war against the United Kingdom. It was followed by the Irish Civil War, which erupted over a disagreement between Irish nationalist factions about the Anglo-Irish Treaty, establishing the Irish Free State as a dominion of the British Empire

. The interwar era was characterized by a continuing disarmament and internationalist movement. Both sides of the imminent Second World War increased military production during the 1930s, but were limited by the Washington Naval Treaty. Unlike the punitive restrictions on land forces nominally imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, Nazi Germany notably complied with the naval restrictions. This resulted in crucial limitations in Germany's Kriegsmarine against the Royal Navy. The interwar years in Europe were brought to a close by the

Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany supporting the Nationalist side, Communist Russia and various European leftist groups supporting the Loyalist side

).

World War II

World War II was a global military conflict which involved a

majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organised into two opposing military alliances: the Allies led by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, versus the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany and Japan. The war involved the mobilisation of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. In a state of "total war", the major participants placed their complete economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Over 70 million died, the majority of them civilians, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.^[5]

The Cold War

The Cold War was the state of conflict, tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s. Throughout this period, rivalry between the two superpowers was expressed through military coalitions, propaganda, espionage, weapons development, industrial advances, and competitive technological development, which included the space race. Both superpowers engaged in costly defence spending, a massive conventional and nuclear arms race, and numerous proxy wars.^[6]

Present

After the Cold War ended, wars have only taken place in Europe during the

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). The current conflict in the area of northern Macedonia and Serbian province Kosovo, where Albanian paramilitaries started guerilla war against the government forces. Kosovar Albanians

want complete independence from Serbia. Serbia is only offering autonomy of its sovereign territory.

In comparison to the breakup of Yugoslavia, the breakup of the Soviet Union and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States was peaceful.

European armies still participate in wars outside the European continent, including conflicts involving NATO members. European soldiers currently are based in Africa, the Americas (Haiti) and Asia (Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon).

European military spending is roughly half that of the United States and about a quarter of the global total.

Notes

^ Christon I. Archer, John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. World History of Warfare (2002)
^ Harry Sidebottom, Ancient warfare: A very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2004).
^ Helen Nicholson, Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500 (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2003).
^ See The Cambridge History of the First World War (3 vol 2014) online
^ See The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol 2015) online
^ David Miller, The Cold War: A Military History (Macmillan, 2015).

Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. World History of Warfare (2002)
The Cambridge History of the First World War (3 vol 2014) online
The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol 2015) online
Cruttwell, C. R. M. F. A History of the Great War, 1914–1918 (1934), general military history online free
ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4
.

Dupuy, R. Ernest, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present (1993)

Gerwarth, Robert, and Erez Manela. "The Great War as a Global War: Imperial Conflict and the Reconfiguration of World Order, 1911–1923." Diplomatic History 38.4 (2014): 786–800. online
Gerwarth, Robert, and Erez Manela, eds. Empires at War: 1911–1923 (2014), 12 very wide-ranging essays by scholars. excerpt
Goldsworthy, Adrian, and John Keegan. Roman Warfare (2000)
Horne, John, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012)
Keegan, John. A History of Warfare (1994) online
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1989) online
Miller, David. The Cold War: A Military History (Macmillan, 2015).
Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich, eds. The Routledge History of Global War and Society (Routledge, 2018)
Paret, Peter, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy (1986), ideas of warfare
Rapport, Mike (2013). The Napoleonic Wars.
ISBN 9780199590964
.

Sharman, Jason C. "Myths of military revolution: European expansion and Eurocentrism." European Journal of International Relations 24.3 (2018): 491-513 online
Sidebottom, Harry. Ancient warfare: A very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2004).
Stevenson, David. Cataclysm: The First World War As Political Tragedy (2004) major reinterpretation, 560pp
Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (2004): a major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914–16; 1245pp
Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.).; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy
Winter, J. M. The Experience of World War I (2nd ed 2005), topical essays;
Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. A Companion to World War II (2 vol 2013), 1030 pp; comprehensive overview by scholars

[1] Christon I. Archer, John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. World History of Warfare (2002)

[2] Harry Sidebottom, Ancient warfare: A very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2004).

[3] Helen Nicholson, Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500 (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2003).

[4] See The Cambridge History of the First World War (3 vol 2014) online

[5] See The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol 2015) online

[6] David Miller, The Cold War: A Military History (Macmillan, 2015).

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v t e History of Europe
Prehistory	Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe
Classical antiquity	Classical Greece Roman Republic Hellenistic period Roman Empire Early Christianity Christianity in late antiquity Crisis of the Third Century Fall of the Western Roman Empire Late antiquity
Middle Ages	Early Middle Ages Migration Period Christianity in the Middle Ages Christianization Francia Anglo-Saxon England Byzantine Empire Papal States Bulgarian Empire First Second Maritime republics Venice Genoa Pisa Amalfi Viking Age Kievan Rus' Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca) Holy Roman Empire High Middle Ages Republic of Florence Feudalism Crusades Mongol invasion Serbian Empire Late Middle Ages Black Death Hundred Years' War Kalmar Union
Early modern	Renaissance Christianity in the modern era Reformation Age of Discovery Baroque Grand Duchy of Tuscany Thirty Years' War Absolute monarchy Ottoman Empire Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Early modern France Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack Hetmanate Swedish Empire Dutch Republic British Empire Habsburg monarchy Russian Empire Age of Enlightenment
Late modern	Great Divergence Industrial Revolution French Revolution Napoleonic Wars Nationalism Revolutions of 1848 World War I Russian Revolution Interwar period World War II Cold War European integration European debt crisis COVID-19 pandemic Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also	Art of Europe Bibliography of European history Genetic history of Europe History of Christianity History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime history of Europe Military history of Europe Crusading movement