Military history of Germany
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. (September 2021) |
History of Germany |
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The military history of Germany spans the period from ancient times to the present.
Ancient times
During the
Germanic tribes are thought to have originated during the Jastorf culture in Iron Age in northern Germany and Denmark, their land was later called "Germania" by the Romans. The tribes spread south, possibly motivated by the deteriorating climate of that area. They crossed the River Elbe, probably overrunning the territories of the Celtic Volcae in the Weser Basin. The Romans recorded one of these early migrations when the Cimbri and the Teutons tribes threatened the Republic itself around the late 2nd century BC. In the East, other tribes, such as Goths, Rugii and Vandals, settled along the shores of the Baltic Sea pushing southward and eventually settling as far away as Ukraine. The Angles and Saxons migrated to England. The Germanic peoples often had a fraught relationship with their neighbours, leading to a period of over two millennia of military conflict over various territorial, religious, ideological and economic concerns.
Middle Ages
The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (also referred as the First German Empire) emerged from the kingdom in the eastern part of Francia called Carolingian Empire at the time (first polity of Germany) in 962 after its division between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in the Treaty of Verdun of 843, and lasted almost a millennium until its dissolution in 1806. It was never a unitary state; from the beginning it was made up of many ethnicities and languages and would at its height comprise territories ranging from eastern France to northern Italy. Its unifying characteristic was its Carolingian heritage and strong religious connotations, its claim to "German-ness" the ethnicity of most of its subjects and rulers.[1]
The military history of Germany during the Middle Ages was full of siege warfare and the technological changes that come from fighting that kind of war. From the creation of the First German Empire in 843 until the creation of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg, the middles ages were fought in similar fashion to those of ancient times. Many changes were made due to the use of siege warfare and new military technologies.
Siege warfare
During the Middle Ages, siege warfare was the primary way in which war was fought and territory taken through conquest. There were field battles fought, in which they employed a
Military technology
With the use of sieges as the primary means of middle age warfare, there were changes in military technology that facilitated fighting this differing kind of warfare. That being said, advances in technology did not mean that old technology became immediately obsolete.[3] One such advance was the trebuchet, but other smaller advancements were made as well. There were advancements such as new helmets called Spangenhelme as well as some Carolingian developments in weapon production.[4] With the subsequent development in armor, there came advancements in handheld weaponry to deal with these developments. For example, swords became thinner and pointed on the tip in order to penetrate between gaps in plate armor.[5] Crossbows as well became more commonly used in the defense of castles during siege warfare. In order to attack castles, the Springald was created to launch spears in succession, but was mainly used outside of Germany.[6] Stirrups were developed which was integral in the use of shock combat during the Middle Ages.[7] The creation of greaves was important in protecting the shins.[8]
The reality of knighthood
In Germany, Baronets were known as (Ritter) or Knights. These were a title of nobility bestowed on people by the local lord. Following this, the title of Ritter was generally passed in a hereditary fashion until the end of the noble line. After which, the title and its holdings would revert to the lord to give out to someone else. Ritter's were considered the elite of the German military as their entire goal was to practice for war. They did this by competing in tournaments to keep themselves practiced. A Ritter would be considered of this lowest nobility but were considered the primary means of defense for many lords. All knights were nobility but not all nobles were knights. The nobility were not a military class, but quite contrarily avoided military conflict on the basis of their immense wealth.[9] As well, knights would have been more likely to ravage the countryside in order to get a country to submit to their authority, rather than seek open battle to prove their point.
Fortifications
Fortifications in Medieval Germany were built similarly to those of the
Battle tactics
The tactics of the Middle Ages varied greatly. A large amount of tactics were still based on Roman ideas. Such as the use of training, regimentation, and the phalanx. Medieval commanders may have been educated or read in
Ninth century
In the year 800, Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor including his dominions in Germany which he gained through military conquest of Saxon tribes. Through the ninth Century, after the death of Charlemagne in 814, the empire was split in the Treaty of Verdun in 843. This created the kingdoms of France, Germany, and Lombardy.[15]
Following the Treaty of Verdun, in 870 there was the Treaty of Meerssen. This treaty replaced the treaty of Verdun and split the empire again. The Kingdom of East Francia (Germany) continued to exist under the conditions of this treaty. However, within 10 years this led to further conflict between German and French Kings.
Tenth century
In July 907, an army of Germans faced off against
From 919–36, the Germanic peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swaben and Bavarians) were united under Henry the Fowler, then Duke of Saxony, who took the title of King. For the first time, the term Kingdom of the Germans ("Regnum Teutonicorum") was applied to East Francia.
The Treaty of Bonn was signed in 921 between Charles III of France and Henry I of Germany. They established the Rhine River as the border and neutral territory of their kingdoms. The treaty was ultimately a failure and led to tensions and military conflict between the kingdoms.[16]
In 933,
In 953-954
In 955, the Magyars were decisively defeated at the second
The
Eleventh century
Between 1002 and 1024, Henry II of Germany was able to conscript forces across his entire kingdom for a campaign south of the Alps into Italy.[22] As was common in previous centuries, all able-bodied men in the Holy Roman Empire were required to defend their home if it was under threat.[23]
Germany during the eleventh century was engulfed in civil war most notably in the 1070s and 1080s. It began during the reign of Henry IV in 1056. During the civil War, Henry IV found time to siege Rome twice in 1081 and 1084. The struggle of the civil war broke German military and political power so that later the kingdom and empire would dissolve into hundreds of autonomous states for some time.[24]
Twelfth century
By 1155, the
Towards the end of the twelfth century in 1198, there was the beginning of the German Throne Dispute. Henry VI died unexpectedly and there was a succession crisis. The direction of the empire was under scrutiny and was altered by the princes of the empire. The result was a conflict that lasted almost 17 years before the son of Henry VI, Frederick II, was able to regain his title and power as Holy Roman Emperor.
Thirteenth century
Teutonic Knights
In 1226
In 1212,
In 1244, the
The Teltow-Magdeburg Wars were fought in the modern German state of Brandenburg. It was fought between 1239 and 1245 over the ownership of some eastern German territories. The war was between princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The result was that Otto the Pious and John I of Brandenburg (Brothers who jointly ruled Brandenburg) expanded their holdings in eastern Germany. Following their conquest, the brothers would later go on to help the Teutonic Order defeat a Prussian uprising in the middle of the 1260s.[30][31]
In 1260, there was a small uprising in the town of Hamelin. The townsfolk rose up in response to a threat by the Bishop of Minden. The Battle took place at the abandoned village of Sedemuender. The result was the total defeat of the townsfolk.[32]
Fourteenth century
In 1311,
In 1361, a war between the Hanseatic League and the Danes broke out. The Hanseatic League won when they conquered Copenhagen. The war lasted nine years and resulted in the Treaty of Stralsund.
In 1393, the "Vitalienbrüder", or the "Victual Brothers" harassed the Hansa and other ships on the Baltic and North Seas. The pirates were brutal and by 1393 the only way for cargo ships to travel was in convoys. The Hansa built some defensive ships but nothing that could completely wipe of the brothers like they had hoped. It was the master of the Teutonic Knights, Konrad von Jungingen that besieged and conquered the Vitalienbrüder base at Gotland that finally ended their reign of terror as the remainder of the pirates were forced to move into other seas.[34]
Fifteenth century
In 1410, the Teutonic Order or (Deutscher Ordensstaat) in German, situated in modern-day Poland, was dealt a defeat by the Polish-Lithuanian forces by King Władysław II Jagiełło. This marked an ending to the power of the German religious state in eastern Europe.
Hussite wars
The
Reformation
During the German Peasants' War, spanning from 1524 to 1525 in the Holy Roman Empire, the peasants rebelled against the nobility. The rebellion ultimately failed in the end and Emperor Charles V became much harsher.[36]
Thirty Years War
From 1618 to 1648 the
The imperial general Prince Eugene of Savoy faced the Ottoman Turks on the battlefield, first coming to prominence during the last major Turkish offensive against the Austrian capital of Vienna in 1683. By the closing years of the 17th century, he was already famous for securing Hungary from the Ottoman Empire, and soon rose to the role of principal Austrian commander during the War of the Spanish Succession.
18th century
From 1701 to 1714 the
During the reign of Frederick William I (1713–40), the military power of Prussia was significantly improved. He organized the government around the needs of his army, and produced an efficient, highly disciplined instrument of war. The Prussian Army was expanded to 80,000 men, about 4% of the total population. Peasants were drafted into the military and trained for duty, but were sent home for ten months out of each year.
Frederick the Great
Frederick the Great, king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, modernized the Prussian Army, introduced new tactical and strategical concepts, fought mostly successful wars and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he launched total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him.[38][39]
In the
During the
Napoleonic Wars (1805–1815)
The
King
The Electorate of Hanover, up till the Convention of Artlenburg ruled in personal union by the English King George III, was incorporated into Prussia. The King's German Legion formed in Britain from officers and soldiers of the dissolved Hanoverian Army, was the only army of a German state that was continually fighting the Napoleonic army.
A demoralised Prussia brought its distinguished old general
Following Napoleon's
Uniting Germany (1815–1871)
By 1815 there were 39 separate German-speaking states, loosely joined (for free trade purposes) in the
Clausewitz
German Empire 1871–1918
After Prussia under Otto von Bismarck won a series of wars against Denmark, Austria and France, it united most of the German states into the German Empire. Its highly professional army set world standards but fought no more wars until 1914.[48]
Wars of Unification
After a period of constitutional deadlock between crown and parliament in Prussia, a crisis arose in 1863 over the duchies of
Bismarck then set about making Prussia the undisputed master of northern Germany, weakening Austria and the
Bismarck wanted a war with France to unify the German peoples, and French Emperor Napoleon III, unaware of his military weakness, provided the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, expecting support from Prussia's recent enemies. Unlike in the war only a few years ago, the Germans turned not against each other, with the first emergence of a strong German national sentiment in the background. Instead, the southern German monarchs of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden honoured their secretly negotiated treaties of mutual defence with Berlin, while Austria remained neutral.
The Germans, led by King
The results of these wars was the emergence of a powerful German
After 1890, Germany made a major effort to build up its navy, leading to a naval arms race with Britain. Germany also sought coaling stations because the coal-burning warships had to be refueled frequently, and Britain had a large worldwide network. Efforts to gain coaling stations in the Caribbean or west Indies failed. By 1900, the possibility of a conflict between Germany and Britain loomed larger, as Germany built up its own (much smaller) colonial empire, and started a naval race to try and catch up with Britain, the world's dominant naval power.[51][52]
World War I (1914–1918)
The German
In the East, however, the war was not confined to trenches. The Russian initial plans for war had called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian
The German Fleet spent most of the war bottled up in port; the great Battle of Jutland in 1916 showed superior German tactics could not overwhelm the more powerful British fleet. U-boats were used by the Imperial German Navy to sink merchant ships bringing supplies to England. This strategy alienated the United States, which declared war in April 1917. Shipments of food and munitions to Britain and France were increased, as the convoy system largely neutralized the U-boats.[54]
By 1917 the German army had begun employing new infiltration tactics in an effort to break the trench warfare deadlock.[55] Units of stormtroopers, were trained and equipped for the new tactics, and were used with devastating effect along the Russian front at Riga then at the Battle of Caporetto in Italy. These formations were then deployed to the Western front to counter the British tank attack at the Battle of Cambrai.[56] On 3 March 1918, Germany and its allies had victory over Russia in Eastern Front.
In March 1918 the German army Spring Offensive began an impressive advance creating a salient in the allied line in Western Front. The offensive stalled as the British and French fell back and then counterattacked. The Germans did not have the airpower or tanks to secure their battlefield gains.[57] The Allies, invigorated by American manpower, money, and food, counterattacked in late summer and rolled over the depleted German lines, as the German navy rebelled and support for the war on the homefront evaporated.
Germany signed the armistice to end its participation in World War I on 11 November 1918.
Weimar Republic and the Third Reich (1918–1939)
The treaty of Versailles imposed severe restrictions on Germany's military strength. The army was limited to one hundred thousand men with an additional fifteen thousand in the navy. The fleet was to consist of at most six battleships, six cruisers, and twelve destroyers, and the Washington Naval Treaty established severe tonnage restrictions for German warships. Tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air force was dissolved. A new post-war military (Reichswehr) was established in March 1921. General conscription was not allowed. The new Weimar Republic had to follow these restrictions, which worsened its already low public esteem.[58]
General Hans von Seeckt the Army Commander, used the lessons of the First World War and the latest technology to develop advanced tactical doctrines, more efficient organizational structures, and better training that kept the small army ready for expansion. The government secretly trained soldiers in the Soviet Union, but otherwise generally followed the Versailles restrictions while retaining a strong cadre of officers and senior non-coms.[59]
The Nazis came to power in 1933 and began
Threats to use military force were a staple in Nazi foreign policy. They were not actually used except as German involvement in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), where the Luftwaffe gained important combat experience.
World War II (1939–1945)
Farrell argues that the historiography of the army in World War II has been "extremely difficult" because of the stark dichotomy between its superb combat performance and the horrors of its destruction and crimes against civilians and prisoners.[60]
At first Germany's military moves were brilliantly successful, as in the "blitzkrieg" invasions of Poland (1939), Norway and Denmark (1940), the Low Countries (1940), and above all the stunningly successful invasion and quick conquest of France in 1940. Hitler probably wanted peace with Britain in late 1940, but Winston Churchill, standing alone, was dogged in his defiance. Churchill had major financial, military, and diplomatic help from President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States, another implacable foe of Hitler. Rising tensions with the Soviet Union eventually led Germany to launch a full-scale invasion of its former ally in June 1941. Hitler's insistence on maintaining high living standards postponed the full mobilization of the national economy until 1942, years after the great rivals Britain, Russia, and the U.S. had fully mobilized.
In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland using new tactics that combining the use of tanks, motorised infantry, and air support – known as Blitzkrieg – caused Polish resistance to collapse within weeks especially once the soviets attacked later that same month from the East.Britain and France declared war but over the winter of 1939–40 there was very little combat in what was called the Phoney War.
In April 1940, in
France
The French plans were largely based on a static defense behind the Maginot Line – a series of formidable defensive forts along the French-German border.[62] German General Erich von Manstein thought on an idea which led eventually to the approval of a Sichelschnitt ('Sickle Cut') plan to the conquest of France. On 10 May 1940 the Germans bypassed the Maginot Line by launching another Blitzkrieg through neutral Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands, drawing the Allied forces out. The main thrust of the Battle of France attack however was through the Ardennes which were to that time believed impenetrable to tanks. The British Expeditionary Force and other allied units were driven back to the coast at Dunkirk, but managed to escape with most of their troops when Germany made a mistaken decision not to attack with tanks. In June 1940, with French troops encircled and cut off in the north, France asked for an armistice that allowed Germany to control most of the French coast and left Vichy France under German domination.[63]
Battle of Britain
Hitler at least wanted to threaten an invasion of Britain, perhaps to force a peace, so an armada of small boats and a large combat force was assembled in northern France. The Battle of Britain was of basic strategic significance, for Berlin believed that it could defeat Britain only by physical invasion by the Army, codenamed Operation Sea Lion. The British Army had rescued its soldiers at Dunkirk but lost most of its equipment and weapons, and was no match for the fully equipped German army. The invasion could succeed only if the Luftwaffe could guarantee the Royal Navy would not be able to attack the landing force. To do so, the Royal Air Force had to be defeated.
The Battle took place August to September 1940. The Luftwaffe used 1300 medium bombers guarded by 900 fighters; they made 1500 sorties a day from bases in France, Belgium and Norway. The Royal Air Force (RAF) had 650 fighters, with more being produced every day. Thanks to radar technology, the British knew where the Germans were, and could concentrate their counterattacks.[64] The Germans used their strategic bombing doctrine to focus on RAF airfields and radar stations. After the RAF bomber forces (quite separate from the fighter forces) attacked Berlin and other cities (a war crime), Hitler swore revenge and diverted the Luftwaffe to attacks on London (a war crime). The success the Luftwaffe was having in rapidly wearing down the RAF was squandered, as the civilians being hit were far less critical than the airfields and radar stations that were now ignored.[65] The last German daylight raid was September 30; the Luftwaffe was taking unacceptable losses and broke off the attacks; occasional air raids hit London and other cities from time to time before May 1941, killing over 42,000 civilians. The Luftwaffe lost 1733 planes, the British, 915. The British showed more determination, better radar, and better ground control, while the Germans violated their own doctrine with wasted attacks on London.[66]
The British surprised the Germans with their high quality aircraft; flying close to home bases where they could refuel, and using radar as part of an integrated air defense system, they had a significant advantage over German aircraft operating at long ranges. The Hawker Hurricane fighter played a vital role for the RAF in winning the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. A fast, heavily armed monoplane that went into service in 1937, the Hurricane was effective against both German fighters and bombers and accounted for 70–75% of German losses during the battle of Britain. The Germans immediately pulled out their Stukas, which were no match against the Hurricanes and Supermarine Spitfires. The Battle of Britain showed the world that Hitler's vaunted war machine could be defeated.
Barley (2004) identifies numerous failures by the German high command. Hitler was indecisive, failing to identify a political goal that would define the military mission. Luftwaffe planning was muddled, and overlooked the important lessons learned in Spain. The operation was poorly supported by German intelligence. Germany failed to adhere to two key principles of war: know your enemy and yourself, and select and maintain your aim.[67]
Balkans
To support their weakened Italian allies who had started several invasions, in early 1941 Germany deployed troops in
Operation Barbarossa
Hitler made the fateful decision to invade Russia in early 1941, but was delayed by the need to take control of the Balkans. Europe was not big enough for both Hitler and Stalin, and Hitler realized the sooner he moved the less risk of American involvement. Stalin thought he had a long-term partnership and rejected information coming from all directions that Germany was about to invade in June 1941. As a result, the Russians were poorly prepared and suffered huge losses, being pushed back to Moscow by December before holding the line. Hitler imagined that the Soviet Union was a hollow shell that would easily collapse, like France. He therefore had not prepared for a long war, and did not have sufficient winter clothing and gear for his soldiers.[69][70] Weinberg (1994) argues that decisions concerning the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 must be understood in the broader context of Hitler's ideological motivations and long-term goals. Although Hitler had decided to invade the Soviet Union as early as 1940, German resources never reflected this; armaments production, tank and aircraft construction, and logistical preparations focused on the West. Diplomatic activity was similarly skewed; Hitler granted Stalin any territory he wanted (such as Lithuania), knowing they would soon be at war and Germany would reclaim it anyway. Hitler, blinded by his racist prejudices against Slavs, believed the Eastern campaign would be quick and easy. His real strategic concern was Great Britain and the United States, and his planning consistently demonstrated this.[71]
The Balkan operation had caused a delay, and about six weeks later than planned, on 22 June 1941, Germany reneged on its non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union and launched Operation Barbarossa. The German army and its allies made enormous territorial gains in the first months of the war, reaching the outskirts of Moscow when winter set in. Expecting another Blitzkrieg victory, the Germans had not properly prepared for warfare in winter and over long distances.[72]
High Point and Collapse
The years 1941/1942 saw the high point for the German army which controlled an area from France to deep into Russia, and from Norway to western Egypt. Consequently, it also proved to be the turning point. The harsh Russian winters and long supply lines worked in Russia's favour and German armies were decisively defeated in early 1943 at Stalingrad and later in the gigantic tank battle at Kursk.[73] British and American forces cut off reinforcements to North Africa, defeated Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, and captured the German and Italian forces there.[74]
Hitler was technologically oriented and promoted a series of new secret weapons, such as the jet plane, the jet-powered missile (V-1), the rocket-powered missile (V-2), and vastly improved submarines. However he failed to support development of nuclear weapons or proximity fuses, and trailed the Allies in radar. He failed to take advantage of the German lead in jet planes.[75]
In early 1943 the Soviet victory at Stalingrad marked the beginning of the end, as Germany was unable to cope with the superior manpower and industrial resources of the Allies. North Africa, Sicily, and southern Italy fell in 1943. Hitler rescued Benito Mussolini from prison. Mussolini set up a new "Salo Republic" but he was a mere puppet, as German forces blocked the Allies from the industrial northern third of Italy. The Russians pushed forward relentlessly in the East, while the Allies in the west launched a major bombing campaign in 1944–45 that destroyed all major and many smaller German cities, ruined transportation, and signaled to Germans how hopeless their cause was.
The Allies invaded France in June 1944 as the Russians launched another attack on the east. Both attacks were successful and by the end of 1944, the end was in sight. Hitler did launch a surprise attack at the Bulge in December 1944; it was his last major initiative and it failed, as Allied armor rolled into Germany. Disregarding his generals, Hitler rejected withdrawals and retreats, counting more and more on nonexistent armies. Hitler committed suicide in his underground bunker in Berlin as his last soldiers were overwhelmed by Soviet armies in intensely bloody battles overhead.[76]
Germany signed the document of surrender to end its participation in World War II on 8 May 1945.
Cold War (1949–1990)
Among the legacies of the Nazi era were the
West Germany
In 1949, West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) was formed from the French, British and American zones, while the Soviet zone formed East Germany (German Democratic Republic). The western territory of Germany fell under the protection of the NATO alliance in the west, while the eastern state joined the Warsaw Pact. Each state possessed its own military force, with eastern Germany formed along the Soviet model and federal Germany adopting a more 'western' organisation. The allied zones of Berlin became de facto part of the Federal Republic of Germany despite the city's location deep in the German Democratic Republic. That resulted in a special situation for Berlin, i.e. the draft was not in effect in West Berlin. This condition continued until 1990 when the two states were reunited.
The Bundeswehr was established in 1955 in West Germany. In 1956, conscription for all men between 18 and 45 in years was introduced after heavy discussions about re-militarising Germany. A significant exception came from the conscientious objector clause in the West German constitution: West Germany was the first country to grant alternative service to all men who objected to military service on ethical grounds, regardless of religious affiliation. This was named "Zivildienst" roughly translated as "civil services".
Cold War analysts considered Germany the most likely location for the outbreak of a possible Third World War. Tensions ran high during 1948 when the Soviet Union and "Sowjetische Besatzungszone" (Soviet Occupied Territories) closed all roads bringing supplies to West Berlin. The Berlin Airlift sustained the population and avoided a new war. Construction of the Berlin Wall was in 1961.
During the Cold War the Bundeswehr had a strength of 495,000 military and 170,000 civilian personnel. The army consisted of three corps with 12 divisions, most of them armed with tanks and APCs. The air force owned major numbers of tactical combat aircraft and took part in
The United States played a dominant role in NATO, and had its own forces stationed in Germany as well. Cooperation between the two militaries was extensive and cordial. Joint exercises and close collaboration allowed the German and American armies to learn from each other regarding strategy, tactics and technology.[77] However, there were failures when it came to a joint venture in tank design in the 1960s, and the lack of cooperation in developing infantry fighting vehicles.[78]
East Germany
In East Germany, the Nationale Volksarmee (
At the critical moment in its history in November 1989, the NVA refused to battle the demonstrators protesting the Communist regime. Mikhail Gorbachev refused to let Soviet troops become engaged, and so not just the leadership but the entire Communist system in East Germany collapsed, and the country was soon absorbed by West Germany.[81]
Post-Cold War to present-day
German reunification
In the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (1990), Germany agreed to reduce the strength of its combined armed forces to no more than 370,000 men. After reunification, the Bundeswehr absorbed parts of the Nationale Volksarmee of the GDR, which was being dissolved. In 1999, the NATO war on Yugoslavia in Kosovo was the first offensive conflict in which the German military actively took part since the Second World War. In 2000, the European Court of Justice opened up the previously all-male (besides medical divisions and the music corps) Bundeswehr to women. Since the early 1990s, the Bundeswehr became more engaged in international peacekeeping missions in and around the former Yugoslavia, Cambodia, Somalia, Djibouti, Georgia, and Sudan.
War on terrorism
As part of Operation Enduring Freedom as a response to those attacks, Germany deployed approximately 2,250 troops including KSK special forces, naval vessels and NBC cleanup teams to Afghanistan. German forces have contributed to ISAF, the NATO force in Afghanistan, and a Provincial Reconstruction Team.[82] German army CH-53 helicopters have deployed to Afghanistan, one crashed in December 2002 in Kabul, killing seven German soldiers. Eleven other German soldiers have been killed: four in two different ordnance-defusing accidents, one in a vehicle accident, five in two separate suicide bombings, and one in landmine explosion. German forces were in the more secure north of the country and Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK, Estonia, the Netherlands and Norway), were criticised for not taking part in the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan in 2006.[83]
Reorientation of the Bundeswehr
A major event for the German military was the suspension of the compulsory conscription for men in 2011. In 2011/12, a major reform of the Bundeswehr was announced, further limiting the number of military bases and soldiers.[84] As of December 2012, the number of active military personnel in the Bundeswehr was down to 191,818, corresponding to a ratio of 2.3 active soldiers per 1,000 inhabitants.[85] Military expenditure in Germany was at €31.55 billion in 2011, corresponding to 1.2% of GDP.[86] Both the number of active soldiers and the military expenditure placed Germany below comparable countries of the European Union such as France and the United Kingdom. While this was already true in absolute terms, the difference was even more pronounced when taking into account Germany's larger population and economy. Thus, Germany appears less prepared to pay for the military and to attach less importance to defense than comparable countries. This stance often draws criticism from Germany's military allies, especially the United States.[87][88]
In May 2016, the German government announced it would spend €130 billion on new equipment by 2030 and add nearly 7,000 soldiers by 2023 in the first German military expansion since the end of the Cold War.[89][90] In February 2017, the German government announced another expansion, which would increase the number of its professional soldiers by 20,000 by 2024.[91]
Reduction of foreign armed forces
Whereas Soviet soldiers fully withdrew from reunified Germany after the Cold War, Germany still allowed the former three Western occupying powers to maintain their forces, albeit in smaller numbers. The United States has reduced its total forces, maintaining a contingent of 47,761 troops as of 2012.[92] The remaining British presence in Germany is known as British Army Germany. French soldiers continue to be deployed on German soil as a part of the Franco-German Brigade.[citation needed]
Several naval forces have operated in Germany at different times. See
- Prussian Navy, 1701–1867
- Reichsflotte (Fleet of the Realm), 1848–52
- North German Federal Navy, 1867–71
- Imperial German Navy, 1871–1918
- Reichsmarine, 1919–35
- Kriegsmarine, 1935–45
- German Mine Sweeping Administration, 1945 to 1956
- Bundesmarine, 1956 to 1994
- Volksmarine, the navy of East Germany, 1956–90
- German Navy, since 1995
See also
- Wehrmacht
- German Army (German Empire)
- History of Germany
- Prussian Army
- List of wars involving Germany
- Bundeswehr
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- ^ "www.feuerbach.de :: Feuerbach schreibt". 2007-12-09. Archived from the original on 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
- ISBN 978-1-84383-237-9.
- ^ Stephen Turnbull and Angus McBride, The Hussite Wars 1419-36 (Men-at-Arms, 2004)[verification needed]
- ^ Douglas Miller and Angus McBride, Armies of the German Peasants' War 1524–26 (Men-at-Arms series) (2003)
- ^ Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy (2009)
- ISBN 978-0300056662.
- ^ Dennis E. Showalter, The Wars of Frederick the Great (1996)
- ^ Robert Asprey, Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma (2007) pp 425–560
- ISBN 978-0803265868.
- ^ Franz A.J. Szabo, The Seven Years War in Europe: 1756–1763 (2007)
- ^ Robert P. Goetz, 1805: Austerlitz: Napoleon And The Destruction Of The Third Coalition (2005)
- ^ David Gates, The Napoleonic Wars 1803–1815 (1997)
- ^ Charles Edward White, The Enlightened Soldier: Scharnhorst and the Militarische Gesellschaft in Berlin, 1801–1805 (1988)
- ^ Roger Parkinson, The Hussar General: The Life of Blucher, Man of Waterloo (2000)
- Journal of Military History Vol. 65, No. 2 (Apr., 2001), pp. 333–354 in JSTOR
- ^ Alfred Vagts, "Land and Sea Power in the Second German Reich." Journal of Military History 3.4 (1939): 210+ online
- ^ Dennis E. Showalter, The wars of German unification (2004)
- ^ Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871 (1961) excerpt and text search
- ^ Robert K Massie, Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the coming of the Great War, (1991) is popular
- ^ Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism: 1860–1914 (1980) is advanced
- ^ Holger H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (2009)
- ^ Paul Halpern, A Naval History of World War I (1994) ch 10–13 excerpt and text search
- ^ Bruce I. Gudmundsson, Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German Army, 1914–1918 (1995)
- ^ Alexander Turner and Peter Dennis, Cambrai 1917: The birth of armoured warfare (2007)
- ^ Phil Tomaseli, Lys 1918: Estaires And Givenchy, The: German Spring Offensives (2011)
- ^ William Mulligan, The Creation of the Modern German Army: General Walther Reinhardt and the Weimar Republic, 1914–1930 (2004)
- ^ James S. Corum, The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform (1994)
- ^ Kevin W. Farrell, "Recent Approaches to the German Army of World War II: Is the Topic More Accessible after 65 Years?" Global War Studies (2010) 7#2 pp 131–156 online
- ^ Andrew Roberts, The Storm of War: A New History of the Second World War (2011) pp 29–42
- ^ Robert A. Doughty, The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 (1990) ch 1
- ^ Alistair Horne, To Lose a Battle: France 1940 (1969) pp 646–66
- ^ Anthony J. Cumming, "Did Radar Win the Battle of Britain?" Historian, 2007 69#4 pp 688–705
- ^ Civilian deaths were 300 to 600 a day, plus 1000 to 3000 injured. London was not a factory city and aircraft production went up.
- ^ Arnold D. Harvey, "The Battle of Britain, in 1940 and 'Big Week,' in 1944: A Comparative Perspective," Air Power History (2012) 59#1 pp 34–45
- ^ M. P. Barley, "Contributing to its Own Defeat: The Luftwaffe and the Battle of Britain," Defence Studies, Autumn 2004, Vol. 4#3 pp 387–411
- ^ Robert M. Kennedy, Hold the Balkans!: German Antiguerrilla Operations in the Balkans 1941–1944 (2001)
- ^ Ian Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 (2007)
- ^ Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994) ch 5
- ^ Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994) pp 122–86
- David M. Glantz, Operation Barbarossa: Hitler's Invasion of Russia 1941 (2011)ch 1
- ^ Mark Healy, Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns In The East (1992) ch 6
- ^ Dennis E. Showalter, Patton And Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century (2006) ch 1
- ^ Ian V. Hogg, German Secret Weapons of World War II (2006)ch 1
- ^ Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945 (2003) ch 1
- ^ A. J. Birtle, Rearming the Phoenix: U.S. Military Assistance to the Federal Republic of Germany, 1950–1960 (1991), 131–249.
- Journal of Military History (2008) 72#2 pp 477–508 online
- ^ Emily O. Goldman and Leslie C. Eliason, The diffusion of military technology and ideas (2003) p 132
- ^ Alan L. Nothnagle, Building the East German myth (1999) p 176
- ^ Dale Roy Herspring, Requiem for an army: the demise of the East German military (1998) p 2
- ^ Vincent Morelli and Paul Belkin, NATO in Afghanistan: A Test of the Transatlantic Alliance (Congressional Research Service, 2009) p. 22
- ^ Canada gives Afghanistan warning, afghannews.net
- Bundesministerium der Verteidigung. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- Bundesministerium der Verteidigung. Archived from the originalon 2016-08-22. Retrieved 2012-12-28.
- Bundesministerium der Verteidigung. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- ^ Smale, Alison (5 June 2016). "In a Reversal, Germany's Military Growth Is Met With Western Relief". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
- ^ Tomkiw, Lydia (10 May 2016). "Germany Announces First Military Expansion Since Cold War Amid Cyber Threats, US Pressure". International Business Times. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
- ^ "Germany to Expand Bundeswehr to Almost 200,000 Troops". Deutsche Welle. 21 February 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
- U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2012-12-28.
Further reading
- Barnett, Correlli, ed. Hitler's Generals (2003) essays by experts on 23 top generals
- Brose, Eric Dorn. The Kaiser's Army: The Politics of Military Technology in Germany during the Machine Age, 1870–1918 (2004) excerpt and text search
- Citino, Robert M. The German Way of War: From the Thirty Years' War to the Third Reich (2008) excerpt and text search
- Craig, Gordon A. The Politics of the Prussian Army: 1640–1945 (1964) excerpt and text search
- Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 (2009)
- Frevert, Ute. A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society (2004), history since 1800
- Hauptmann, Hermann. The Rise and Fall of the Luftwaffe (2012) excerpt and text search
- Herwig, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (2009)
- Hooton, Tim. The Luftwaffe: A Complete History 1933–45 (2010)
- Kelly, Patrick J. Tirpitz and the Imperial German Navy (2011) excerpt and text search
- Kitchen, Martin. A Military History of Germany: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present Day (1976)
- Krimmer, Elisabeth, and Patricia Anne Simpson, eds. Enlightened War: German Theories and Cultures of Warfare from Frederick the Great to Clausewitz (2011)
- Lider, Julian. Origins and Development of West German Military Thought, Vol. I, 1949–1966, (Gower, 1986)
- McNab, Chris. Hitler's Armies: A history of the German War Machine 1939–45 (2011) excerpt and text search
- Mosier, John. Cross of Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German War Machine, 1918–1945 (2007) excerpt and text search
- Murray, Williamson. Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945 (1983)
- Probert, H. A. The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force 1933–1945 (1987), history by the British RAF
- Ripley, Tim. The Wehrmacht: The German Army in World War II, 1939–1945 (2003)
- Ritter, Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter: The Prussian Tradition, 1740–1890 (1988); The Sword and the Scepter: The Problem of Militarism in Germany: The European Powers and the Wilhelminian Empire, 1890–1914 (1972); Sword and the Scepter: The Problem of Militarism in Germany-The Tragedy of Statesmanship : Bethmann Hollweg As War Chancellor, 1914–1917 (1972); The Sword and the Scepter: The Reign of German Militarism and the Disaster of 1918 (1988)
- Stone, David J. Fighting for the Fatherland: The Story of the German Soldier from 1648 to the Present Day (2006)
- Thomas, Charles S. The German Navy in the Nazi Era (1990)
- Vagts, Alfred. "Land and Sea Power in the Second German Reich." Journal of Military History 3.4 (1939): 210+ online
External links
- Web Sources for Military History
- West Point Atlas, especially for World Wars I and II
- Documents of German unification[permanent dead link] (in English)
- Clausewitz Homepage
- Primary documents from 18th and 19th century German history (links and background in English, documents in German).
- Maps of nineteenth century German unification
- Hussite Wars