Military history of India

The

• 
  A painting showing the Mysorean army fighting the British forces with Mysorean rockets, which used metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder.^[37]
• 
  A

  Mysorean rocket as a flagstaff (Robert Home

  , 1793/4).

Company rule

The

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, some units of the Bengal Native Infantry and Cavalry mutinied against the British East India Company. However, the rebels received less support than they had expected from members of the Bombay and Madras Armies. A number of atrocities were perpetrated by the rebels, most infamously at the Siege of Cawnpore. The rebellion ultimately failed because of lack of resources and coordination among the rebels. During their suppression of the rebellion, the British carried out numerous reprisals, and the revolt was largely quashed by 1858.^[38]

The British Raj

Following the Sepoy Mutiny, British rule in India was reorganised under the

The British Indian Army consisted of members of all the major religious groups in India: Hindus, Sikhs, Christians, and Muslims. The number of Sikhs in the army grew steadily with time as British commanders came to believe they were more loyal and martial, an impression reinforced by their conduct during the Sepoy Mutiny. The Sikhs, for their part, aligned with the British to prevent a resurgence of Mughal rule; Sikhs had been persecuted under the Mughal Empire.

The Indian Air Force was established in 1932.

World War I

During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.^[39] The Army saw action on the Western Front within a month of the start of the war, at the First Battle of Ypres where Khudadad Khan became the first Indian to be awarded a Victoria Cross. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.^[40]

One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,[41] and another 67,000 were wounded.^[42] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who lost their lives fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.

World War II

Royal Indian Navy landing craft enter bay at Singapore, 1944.

Sikh soldiers of the Indian Legion guarding the Atlantic Wall in France in March 1944. Subhas Chandra Bose initiated the legion's formation, and intended for it to serve as a liberation force for British-controlled India.

In 1939, the British Indian Army's strength was about 189,000, with about 3,000 British officers and 1,115 Indian officers. The army was expanded greatly to fight in

During the war, Indian nationalist expatriates in Southeast Asia and the Japanese Army formed the Indian National Army (INA) to fight for Indian independence from Britain. For manpower, it relied on the approximately 45,000 Indian troops of the Indian Army whom the Japanese captured when Singapore fell in February 1942. Subhas Chandra Bose was parachuted in to lead the INA in 1943, and he greatly expanded the INA to include the mainly Tamil civilian Indian community in Malaya. He also negotiated a combat role for the INA from the reluctant Japanese, who were more inclined to use it intelligence and propaganda work. In 1944, INA units participated in the Japanese Army's offensives against British positions in the Arakan and the Imphal Plain. Not being a military man Bose – or "Netaji" (respected leader) naively believed that Indian soldiers of the Indian Army who deployed against the INA would flock to its standard. But these Indian troops stood fIrm, and actually defeated the INA. Despite this, Bose insisted that the INA be given an independent sector on the Irrawaddy in February 1945. Despite the desperate efforts of some INA troops, their sector was overrun, and desertions became commonplace. Militarily, the INA was finished. After the war, however, it made a political impact, due to the British decision to publicly court-martial three INA commanders. This was a miscalculation, because Indian nationalist politicians, who had previously come out against the INA, now whipped up popular sentiment for the release of the INA accused. Realizing their error, the British acquiesced. In this way, the INA was another sign that the Raj's days were numbered.

Post-war transition and the Dominion of India

At the end of the war in 1945, the Indian Army's officer corps included Indian Medical Service officer Hiraji Cursetji as its sole Indian major-general, one IMS brigadier, three Indian brigadiers in combatant arms and 220 other Indian officers in the temporary or acting ranks of colonel and lieutenant-colonel.

With Indian independence now a certainty and with a new Labour government recently elected in the UK, the Indianization of the armed forces continued to progress, though by June 1947, two months before independence, the Indian Army had only 14 Indian officers at the rank of brigadier serving in combatant arms, with no Indian flag, general or air officers in the combat arms of the armed services.[46]

Republic of India

Major wars

The Republic of India has fought four wars with Pakistan and one border war with China.

First Indo-Pakistani war, 1947

This is also called the First Kashmir War. The war started in October 1947 when Pakistan feared that the

After the war with Pakistan, India turned its attention to the independent Hyderabad State. India perceived the nearby independent Muslim state and potential Pakistani ally as a threat. In a five-day operation, India reconquered and annexed Hyderabad.

Liberation of Goa, 1961

In 1961 tension rose between India and Portugal over the Portuguese-occupied territory of Goa, which India claimed for itself. After Portuguese police cracked down violently on a peaceful, unarmed demonstration for union with India, the Indian government decided to reconquer. A lopsided air, sea, and ground campaign resulted in the speedy surrender of Portuguese forces.^[54] Within 36 hours, 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule was ended, and Goa was annexed by India. Portuguese losses were 34 killed, 57 wounded, and 3,306 captured. Indian losses were 22 killed and 51 wounded.^[55]

Sino-Indian war, 1962

India fought a month-long border war against China in 1962. Neither nation deployed air or naval resources during a conflict heavy with mountain combat. China ended the war by declaring a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew their forces to the pre-war positions.^[56]

The defeat prompted India to make major changes in its military. The Department of Defence Production was established to create an indigenous defence production base, which would be self-reliant and self-sufficient. Since 1962, 16 new ordnance factories have been built under the program.^{[citation needed]}

Second Indo-Pakistani war, 1965

This war started following Pakistan's

The 1967 Sino-Indian clash also known as the

The end of the battle saw the Chinese Army forced to leave Sikkim after being defeated by Indian troops.[70]^[71][72]

Third Indo-Pakistani war, 1971

This war was unique in the way that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis created by the political battle between Sheikh Mujib, Leader of East Pakistan and Yahya-Bhutto, leaders of West Pakistan brewing in erstwhile

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Pakistan began organising tourist expeditions on the

Commonly known as the Kargil War, or Operation Vijay in India, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. During early 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and occupied Indian territory mostly in the Kargil district. India responded by launching a major military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani infiltrators.^[88] Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators.^[89][90] According to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.^[91] Fearing large-scale escalation in military conflict, the international community, led by the United States, increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory.^[88][92] Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile

By the end of July 1999, organized hostilities in the Kargil district had ceased^[92] and Kargil War finally came to end with a decisive Indian military and diplomatic victory.^{[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][53]}

Other operations

The Mizo National Front, 1966

In March 1966, Mizo rebels in Assam declared independence and attacked government offices and military posts. The uprising was suppressed weeks later, and eventually Mizoram was made a separate state of India.

The Chola incident, 1967

A Sino-Indian skirmish known today as the

In June 1984, then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered an attack on Sikh separatists belonging to the Khalistan movement who had holed up in the Golden Temple in Amritsar. The operation resulted in 500–1,500 civilian deaths and heavy damage to the Akal Takht.

Sri Lanka mission, 1987–1990

The

In November 1988, the

Also known as Bangladeshi-India border war, this brief war started on 15 April when Bangladeshis captured the disputed village of Pyrdiwah. The clashes lasted for about 5 days when the India and Bangladeshi forces took their original positions and the war ended in status quo ante bellum.

Missile program

See also: India and weapons of mass destruction

nuclear yield was reported to be 45 kt.^[113]

In 1974, India tested a nuclear weapon with a yield of up to 15

nuclear state

.

Recent developments

The Indian military ranks

second in terms of number of troops after China. The paramilitary unit of the Republic of India is the world's largest paramilitary force at over one million strong. Eager to portray itself as a potential superpower

, India began an intense phase of upgrading its armed forces in the late 1990s. India focuses on developing indigenous military equipment rather than relying on other countries for supplies. Most of the Indian naval ships and submarines, military armoured vehicles, missiles, and ammunition are indigenously designed and manufactured.

Military collaborations with other countries

In 1997, India agreed to participate in the development of Russia's "Prospective Air Complex for Tactical Air Forces" program. One of the primary objectives of the program was to develop a 5th generation

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

.

India has focused recently on purchasing the technology behind military equipment rather than equipment itself. Recent examples include purchases of

Sukhoi Su-30 MKI multi-role fighter aircraft and T-90

main battle tanks from Russia and diesel-powered Scorpene submarines from France. In 2004, India purchased US$5.7 billion worth of military equipment from other countries, making it the developing world's leading arms purchaser.

Disasters

On 28 April 2000, ammunition worth ₹3.93 billion (US$49 million) was destroyed in a fire at the

Bharatpur ammunition depot. Another fire at the Pathankot

sub-depot resulted in loss of ammo worth ₹280 million (US$3.5 million). On 24 May 2001, another blaze at the Birdhwal sub-depot destroyed ammunition worth ₹3.78 billion (US$47 million).

Awards

India's highest awards for military conduct in a time of war are, in descending order, the

Ashoka Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra

. The latter two awards were formerly known as Ashoka Chakra, Class II and Ashoka Chakra, Class III respectively. The peacetime awards have occasionally been bestowed on civilians. For meritorious service, the awards are the Param Vishisht Seva Medal, the Athi Vishisht Seva Medal, and the Vishisht Seva Medal.

See also

• Indian Army Day
• History of India
• History of the Indian Navy
• Military history of India during World War II
• Military of India
• Ancient Hindu wars

Notes

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• Grainger, John D. (2014), Seleukos Nikator: Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom, Routledge,
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Further reading

• Cohen, Stephen P. and Sunil Dasgupta, eds. Arming Without Aiming: India's Military Modernization (2010) excerpt and text search
• Davis, Zachary S. The India-Pakistan Military Standoff: Crisis and Escalation in South Asia (2011) excerpt and text search; focus on 2000–01 confrontation
• Deshpande, Anirudh. British Military Policy in India, 1900–1945: Colonial Constraints and Declining Power (2005)
• Holmes, James R. et al. Indian Naval Strategy in the Twenty-first Century (2009) excerpt and text search
• Khan, Iqtidar Alam. Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India (2004)
• Marston, Daniel P. and Chandar S. Sundaram. A Military History of India and South Asia: From the East India Company to the Nuclear Era (2006)
• Roy, Kaushik. From Hydaspes to Kargil: A History of Warfare in India from 326 BC to AD 1999 (2004)
• Roy, Kaushik. The Oxford Companion to Modern Warfare in India (2009)
• Sandhu, Gurcharn Singh. Military History of Medieval India (2003)
• Subramaniam, Arjun. India's Wars: A Military History, 1947–1971 (2017), 576 pages.
  ISBN 978-1-68247-241-5
• Sundaram, Chandar S., 'Warfare—South Asia', in W.H. McNeill and P. Stearns, eds., The Berkshire Encyclopaedia of World History 2005, vol. 5, pp. 1991–6, (2005)
• Sundaram, Chandar S., "A Paper Tiger: the Indian National Army in battle, 1944–1945", War & Society, 13(1), pp. 35–59 (1995)
• Jadunath Sarkar (1970). Military history of India. Bombay: Orient Longmans.
• Thapliyal, Uma Prasad. Warfare in Ancient India: Organizational and Operational Dimensions (2010)

Official war histories

Official war histories written by the History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India:

• Sino-Indian war, 1962
• Indo-Pak war, 1965
• Indo-Pak war, 1972

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military history of India.

• The Irrelevance of India's Rise as a Military Power- video of lecture by Stephen P. Cohen, Brookings Institution, hosted by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois, 15 October 2009
• Notes
• The Role of Muslims Martial Races of Today: Pakistan in British-Indian Army in World War-II by Brig (Retd) Noor A Husain.
• India Defence- Defence And Military Portal
• Indian Jawan- A Tribute to the Indian Soldier
• Indian army history
• Indian Air Force history
• Indian Air Force History (Bharat-Rakshak.com)
• Soldiers of the British and Indian armies 1840 to 1920
• Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library Military history and graphics, c. 1790 – 1918