Military of the Han dynasty
The military of the Han dynasty was the military apparatus of
Organization
Recruitment and training
At the start of the Han dynasty, male commoners were liable for conscription starting from the age of 23 until the age of 56. The minimum age was lowered to 20 after 155 BC, briefly raised to 23 again during the reign of Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BC), but returned to 20 afterwards. Some convicts could choose to commute their service by serving on the frontier. Conscripts trained for one year and then served for another year either on the frontier, in one of the provinces, or at the capital as guards. A relatively small minority of these conscripts would also have served in the cavalry division in the north, which was primarily composed of volunteers from families of superior status, or water borne forces in the south.[3] Conscripts were generally trained to arrange themselves in a formation five men deep, but actual practice on the battlefield could be flexible with some commanders preferring ranks of up to 10 men deep.[4][5] Implementation of daily best practices was also highly dependent on each individual commander, with some like Li Guang eschewing administrative details while Cheng Buzhi always kept his men in tight formations.[5] After finishing their two years of service, the conscripts were discharged. During Western Han times discharged conscripts could still be called up for training once a year but this practice was discontinued after 30 AD.[6]
Certain nobles were exempt from military conscription. Those of ranks four to eight did not have to perform service in their locality and those of rank 9 and higher had full exemptions.[6] During the Eastern Han period, commoners were allowed to commute military service by paying a scutage tax.[7]
Professional and Semi-Professional Armies
Garrison troops and armies in the provinces and frontiers were often professional or semi-professional military colonists. These soldiers were stationed on the frontier and served in the military in return for a land allotment. This land was often in the frontier itself, and created a self sustaining system where the soldiers and retired soldiers would be able to farm land that would produce the food that would feed their armies and local populace.[8][9] The difference between military colonies and agricultural colonies was that the former provided regular military service as well as grain, whereas the latter only provided grain and/or taxes.[9]
The efficiency of these garrisons was kept at a high professional standard. Officers arbitrated disputes between servicemen, who could plead for the recovery of debts. In the orderly rooms of the companies meticulous records were kept of the daily work on which men were engaged; of the preparation, dispatch, and receipt of official mail; of the regular tests in archery to which officers were subject; and of the inspectors’ reports on the state of efficiency of sites and equipment. Accurate timekeeping was a feature of service life, as may be seen, for example, in the records of schedules for the delivery of mail; of the observation of routine signals; and of the passage of individuals through points of control. Similarly, careful accounts were kept of the official expenditure and distribution of supplies; of payments made for officers' stipends or for the purchase of stores such as glue, grease, or cloth; of the rations of grain and salt to which men and their families were entitled; of the receipt of equipment and clothing by the men; and of the equipment, weapons, and horses consigned to the care of the units.[10]
During the time of Emperor Wu of Han, people of low reputation and/or low economic class who were initially conscripted often stayed in the military as a way to advance their social and economic status. This created another class of professional or semi-professional troops that numbered at least 150,000 soldiers by 97 BC:
In a long historical perspective, the rise of a professional army under Han Wu-Ti changed the societal perception of the soldier (and the military). While the officers and elite of the Han military became an influential power group in the government, at the same time a large segment of the Han military rank and file were "lowly elements" of the Han society. In the campaigns of 111, 104, and 97 B.C, for example, more than 130,000 paroled convicts and pardoned criminals, juvenile delinquents, hoodlums, and men of bad reputation and undesirable social station were drafted into the army to perform different functions. It is clear that these men would stay in the military after the campaigns, if they survived, and become "professional" soldiers. Together with similar elements in other campaigns, such as the conquests of the Southern Yueh and Southwestern 1 in 112 BC and of Korea in 109 BC, the Han army would had at least 150,000 such soldiers in its professional ranks by 97 BC. And there is no indication in Han Dynasty sources that the army ever went back to the rotating conscription of soldiers from men of regular social station (liang-min); the conscription system was replaced by a professional army. In either case, 150,000 men was a considerable percentage of the Han standing army of 500,000 to 600,000 men, and later 600,000 to 700,000, large enough to change the general perception and image of the Han army among the populace. The army now was an asylum for men of lowly social station and other undesirable elements of society, and military service was no longer mandatory.[11]
The Northern Army was the formal professional force of full-time soldiers which had existed since 180 BC. It originally consisted of eight regiments and around 8,000 troops, but was later reorganized from 31 to 39 AD into a smaller force of five regiments, around 4,200 troops. The five regiments were each commanded by a colonel: the colonel of garrison cavalry, the colonel of picked cavalry, the colonel of infantry, the colonel of Chang River, and the colonel of archers. A captain of the center inspected the Northern Army and their encampments.[12][13][14]
There was also a Southern Army, created in 138 BC, with a total force of 6,000 troops. However the soldiers rotated in and out every year so they are not considered a "standing" professional force[13][6]
In 188 AD an "Army of the Western Garden" was created from the private troops of a collection of warlords as a counterweight to the Northern Army.[15]
According to Rafe de Crespigny, the total number of [formal] professional soldiers in the Eastern Han, including all the smaller groups, amounted to some 20,000 soldiers.[16]
Army (軍 jun) | Inspector | Commander | Regiment (部 bu) | Troops |
---|---|---|---|---|
Northern Army (北軍 beijun) | Captain of the center (北軍中候 beijun zhonghou) | Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Picked cavalry (越騎 yueji) | 900 |
Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Garrison cavalry (屯騎 tunji) | 900 | ||
Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Archers who shoot at sound (射聲 shesheng) | 900 | ||
Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Foot soldiers (步兵 bubing) | 900 | ||
Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Chang River (長水 changshui) | 900 |
Title | Function | Troops |
---|---|---|
Bearer of the gilded mace (執金吾 zhijinwu) | Capital police | 2,000 cavalrymen 1,000 halberdiers |
Colonel of the city gates (城門校尉 chengmen xiaowei) | Gate garrisons | 2,000 |
Rapid as tigers (虎賁 huben) | Hereditary guard | 1,500 |
Feathered Forest (羽林 yulin) | Recruits from the sons and grandsons of fallen soldiers | 1,700 |
Officers
Neither the Qin or Han armies had permanent generals or field commanders. They were chosen from court officials on an ad hoc basis and appointed directly by the emperor as the need arose. At times several generals were given control of expeditionary forces to prevent any one general from obtaining overwhelming power and rebelling. A general's stipends were equivalent or slightly below that of the Nine Ministers, but in the case of failure on campaign, a general could face very severe penalties such as execution. Smaller forces were led a colonel (xiaowei) [17]
General (將軍 jiangjun) | Lieutenant-general (偏將軍 pian jiangjun) Commandant (都尉 duwei) |
Colonel (校尉 xiaowei) | Major (司馬 sima) | Captain of the army (軍候 junhou) | Platoon chief (屯長 tunzhang) |
Logistics
According to
Decline
When imperial authority collapsed after 189 AD, military governors reverted to relying upon their personal retainers as troops. Due to the ensuing chaos of the Three Kingdoms period, there was no need for conscription since displaced peoples voluntarily enlisted in the army for security reasons.[19][20] The end of the Han system of recruitment eventually led to the rise of a hereditary military class by the beginning of the Jin dynasty (266–420).[21]
The internecine conflicts that dominated the Chinese scene during the century after 180 transformed the economy and gave rise to new relationships between elite families and the farming population; they greatly weakened, but did not destroy, the centralized structure of imperial government. At the same time, they also saw the emergence of new forms of military service and military organization. The most important of these changes were the creation of a dependent, hereditary military caste that was clearly distinguished from the general population, an increasing reliance on cavalry forces of non-Chinese, “barbarian” origin, and the development of command structures that left tremendous authority in the hands of local and regional military leaders. All of these developments amounted to the negation of the early Western Han military system that had been based on universal service and temporary, ad hoc command arrangements.[21]
— David Graff
Chariots and horses
Although the chariot started losing prominence around the late Warring States period, it remained in use into the Han era until the Xiongnu war of 133 BC when they proved too slow to catch up to an all cavalry force.[22] However chariots were still used as defensive pieces several decades later.[23]
The Han's cavalry forces were fairly limited at the beginning of the dynasty. Their only large scale horse breeding programs existed in cities along northwest China: Tianshui, Longxi, Anding, Beidi, Shang, and Xihe. Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BC) decreed that three men of age could be exempted from military service for each horse sent by the family to the government. Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC) set up 36 government pastures in the northwest to breed horses for military use and sent 30,000 slaves to care for them. By the time Emperor Wu of Han (r. 9 March 141 BC – 29 March 87 BC) came to power, the Han government had control over herds of roughly 300,000 horses, which increased to over 450,000 under Emperor Wu's reign.[24] On paper, the Han dynasty at its height was capable of fielding up to 300,000 horsemen, but was probably constrained by their immense upkeep. A cavalryman on average cost 87,000 cash, not including rations, while a regular soldier only 10,000 cash. The total expenditure of a 300,000 strong cavalry force would therefore have been around 2.18 times the entire government's annual revenue.[25]
Single mounting stirrups were used, but full double stirrups didn't appear until the later Jin dynasty (266–420).[26]
Zhao (WS) | Warring States | Qin | Han | Ming |
---|---|---|---|---|
8% | 2% | 6% | 36% | 3% |
Armour
Han armour was similar to the armour used by the Qin dynasty with some variations and improvements. Soldiers wore suits of lacquered rawhide, hardened leather, bronze, iron, or steel, and came in varieties such as scale and lamellar. Helmets came as rawhide or hardened leather caps that were sometimes supplemented by a layer of metal lamellar, or made of metals such as iron or steel. Some riders wore armour and carried shields and some horses were at least partially armored, but substantial cataphract-like armor with comprehensive armor covering the entire horse is not attested to in writing until the late 2nd century.[27]
Item | Inventory | Imperial Heirloom |
---|---|---|
Jia armour | 142,701 | 34,265 |
Kai armour | 63,324 | |
Thigh armour | 10,563 | |
Iron thigh armour | 256 | |
Iron lamellar armour (sets/suits?) | 587,299 | |
Helmets | 98,226 | |
Horse armour | 5,330 | |
Shields | 102,551 |
During the late 2nd century BC, the government created a monopoly on the ironworks, which may have caused a decrease in the quantity and quality of iron and armour. Bu Shi claimed that the resulting products were inferior because they were made to meet quotas rather than for practical use. These monopolies as debated in the Discourses on Salt and Iron were abolished by the beginning of the 1st century AD. In 150 AD, Cui Shi made similar complaints about the issue of quality control in government production due to corruption: "...not long thereafter the overseers stopped being attentive, and the wrong men have been promoted by Imperial decree. Greedy officers fight over the materials, and shifty craftsmen cheat them... Iron [i.e. steel] is quenched in vinegar, making it brittle and easy to... [?] The suits of armour are too small and do not fit properly."[28]
Composite bows were considered effective against unarmoured enemies at 165 yards, and against armoured opponents at 65 yards.[26]
References to "great shields" mention they were used on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen.[29]
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Han tomb figurines of soldiers and their shields
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Han shieldbearer
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Han hook shield
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Han iron hook shield
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Replica of Han iron scale armor with helmet.
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Han armor decorated with gold and silver inlays from Prince of Qi's Tomb, Shandong.
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Replica of Western Han "sleeved armor" (lit. tǒngxiùkǎi", 筒袖铠)
Swords and polearms
The jian was mentioned as one of the "Five Weapons" during the Han dynasty, the other four being dao, spear, halberd, and staff. Another version of the Five Weapons lists the bow and crossbow as one weapon, the jian and dao as one weapon, in addition to halberd, shield, and armour.[30]
The jian was a popular weapon during the Han era and there emerged a class of swordsmen who made their living through fencing. Sword fencing was also a popular pastime for aristocrats. A 37 chapter manual known as the Way of the Jian is known to have existed, but is no longer extant. South and central China were said to have produced the best swordsmen.[31]
There existed a weapon called the "Horse Beheading Jian", so called because it was supposedly able to cut off a horse's head.[32] However, another source says that it was an execution tool used on special occasions rather than a military weapon.[33]
Daos with ring pommels also became widespread as a cavalry weapon during the Han era. The dao had the advantage of being single edged, which meant the dull side could be thickened to strengthen the sword, making it less prone to breaking. When paired with a shield, the dao made for a practical replacement for the jian, hence it became the more popular choice as time went on. After the Han, sword dances using the dao rather than the jian are mentioned to have occurred. Archaeological samples range from 86 to 114 cm in length.[34]
Item | Inventory | Imperial Heirloom |
---|---|---|
Bronze dagger-axe | 632 | 563 |
Spear | 52,555 | 2,377 |
Long lance (pi) | 451,222 | 1,421 |
Ranseur-like Swordstaff (sha) | 24,167 | |
Halberd (ji) | 6,634 | |
Youfang (Some type of halberd/polearm, its exact description is unclear) | 78,393 | |
Jian | 99,905 | 4 |
Dao | 156,135 | |
Sawing dao | 30,098 | |
Great dao | 127 | 232 |
Iron axe | 1,132 | 136 |
Dagger | 24,804 | |
Shield | 102,551 | |
Crossbow | 537,707 | 11,181 |
Bow | 77,52 | |
Bolts | 11,458,424 | 34,265 |
Arrows | 1,199,316 | 511 |
An account of Duan Jiong's tactical formation in 167 AD specifies that he arranged "…three ranks of halberds (長鏃 changzu), swordsmen (利刃 liren) and spearmen (長矛 changmao), supported by crossbows (強弩 qiangnu), with light cavalry (輕騎 jingji) on each wing."[35]
The characters zu and mao both indicate lances or spears, but I suspect the changzu may have had two blades or points. Such weapons, commonly identified as 戟 ji, but also as 鈹 pi and 錟 tan, have been known from early times. Some bronze horsemen found in the tomb at Leitai 雷台 by present-day Wuwei are armed with halberds. An alternative rendering for changzu would be “javelin,” but javelins were not common in ancient China.[35]
— Rafe de Crespigny
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Sword (jian) from Mawangdui
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Jian,Western Han
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Iron swords, Han dynasty
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Sword with jade guard, Han dynasty
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Steel sabre with ring pommel, Han dynasty
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Han ring-pommel backsword (環首刀)
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Restored replica of Han ring-pommel backsword (環首刀) and Han jian.
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Spear and glaive polearm, Han dynasty
Crossbow
It's clear from surviving inventory lists in Gansu and Xinjiang that the crossbow was greatly favored by the Han dynasty. For example, in one batch of slips there are only two mentions of bows, but thirty mentions of crossbows.[36] Crossbows were mass-produced using materials such as mulberry wood and brass. In 1068 during the Song Dynasty, such crossbows were capable of piercing a tree at 140 paces.[37] Crossbows were used in numbers as large as 50,000 starting from the Qin dynasty and upwards of several hundred thousand during the Han.[38] According to one authority the crossbow had become "nothing less than the standard weapon of the Han armies" by the second century BC.[39] Han era carved stone images and paintings also contain images of horsemen wielding crossbows. Han soldiers were required to pull an "entry level" crossbow with a draw-weight of 76 kg/168lb to qualify as an entry level crossbowman,[40] while it was claimed that a few elite troops were capable of bending crossbows by the hands-and-feet method, with a draw-weight in excess of 340 kg/750lb.[41][42]
The Huainanzi advises its readers not to use crossbows in marshland where the surface is soft and it is hard to arm the crossbow with the foot.[36] The Records of the Grand Historian, completed in 94 BC, mentions that Sun Bin defeated Pang Juan by ambushing him with a body of crossbowmen at the Battle of Maling.[43] The Book of Han, finished 111 AD, lists two military treatises on crossbows.[44]
In the 2nd century AD, Chen Yin gave advice on shooting with a crossbow in the Wuyue Chunqiu:
When shooting, the body should be as steady as a board, and the head mobile like an egg [on a table]; the left foot [forward] and the right foot perpendicular to it; the left hand as if leaning against a branch, the right hand as if embracing a child. Then grip the crossbow and take a sight on the enemy, hold the breath and swallow, then breathe out as soon as you have released [the arrow]; in this way you will be unperturbable. Thus after deep concentration, the two things separate, the [arrow] going, and the [bow] staying. When the right hand moves the trigger [in releasing the arrow] the left hand should not know it. One body, yet different functions [of parts], like a man and a girl well matched; such is the Dao of holding the crossbow and shooting accurately.[45]
— Chen Yin
The crossbow was particularly effective against cavalry charges for two reasons. One, the crossbow could shoot further and harder than the bows of the Xiongnu, and two, even if the enemy went back to collect the quarrels, they had no way of using them because they were too short for their bows.
In 169 BC, Chao Cuo observed that by using the crossbow, it was possible to overcome the Xiongnu:
Of course, in mounted archery [using the short bow] the Yi and the Di are skilful, but the Chinese are good at using nu che. These carriages can be drawn up in the form of a laager which cannot be penetrated by cavalry. Moreover, the crossbows can shoot their bolts to a considerable range, and do more harm [lit. penetrate deeper] than those of the short bow. And again, if the crossbow bolts are picked up by the barbarians they have no way of making use of them. Recently the crossbow has unfortunately fallen into some neglect; we must carefully consider this... The strong crossbow [jing nu] and the [arcuballista shooting] javelins have a long range; something which the bows of the Huns can no way equal. The use of sharp weapons with long and short handles by disciplined companies of armoured soldiers in various combinations, including the drill of crossbow men alternately advancing [to shoot] and retiring [to load]; this is something which the Huns cannot even face. The troops with crossbows ride forward [cai guan shou] and shoot off all their bolts in one direction; this is something which the leather armour and wooden shields of the Huns cannot resist. Then the [horse-archers] dismount and fight forward on foot with sword and bill; this is something which the Huns do not know how to do.[46]
— Chao Cuo
Special crossbows
In 99 BC, mounted multiple bolt crossbows were used as field artillery against attacking nomadic cavalry.[47]
In 180 AD, Yang Xuan used a type of repeating crossbow powered by the movement of wheels:
...around A.D. 180 when Yang Xuan, Grand Protector of Lingling, attempted to suppress heavy rebel activity with badly inadequate forces. Yang's solution was to load several tens of wagons with sacks of lime and mount automatic crossbows on others. Then, deploying them into a fighting formation, he exploited the wind to engulf the enemy with clouds of lime dust, blinding them, before setting rags on the tails of the horses pulling these driverless artillery wagons alight. Directed into the enemy's heavily obscured formation, their repeating crossbows (powered by linkage with the wheels) fired repeatedly in random directions, inflicting heavy casualties. Amidst the obviously great confusion the rebels fired back furiously in self-defense, decimating each other before Yang's forces came up and largely exterminated them.[47]
— Ralph Sawyer
The invention of the repeating crossbow has often been attributed to Zhuge Liang, but he in fact had nothing to do with it. This misconception is based on a record attributing improvements to the multiple bolt crossbows to him.[48]
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Ancient Chinese crossbow (2nd century BC). Guimet Museum, Paris.
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Western Han (206 B.C-24 A.D.) crossbow
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Han dynasty bronze crossbow trigger
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Western Han crossbow trigger and butt plate
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Han crossbow triggers
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Han crossbow triggers
Beginning in the Han, Chinese warships had changed from
The navy consisted primarily of two classes of ships: the deck ship (艦) and the spear ship (蒙衝). Deck ships resembled a cage with thick planking above deck, on deck and all around the hull as protection against projectiles. The spear ships were long and narrow, designed for ramming enemy ships. 200,000 seamen served in the deck ship fleet, divided into 3 squadrons, the Jianghuai Squadron in Yuchang (now Nanchang), the Kuaiji Squadron in Gouzhang (now near Ningbo) and the Qingqi Squadron in Shandong.[50]
Major campaigns and battles
Subduing the kings
After defeating
In the summer, Zang Tu, the King of Yan, marched on Dai to annex the region. Gaozu immediately led an army against him. His general Zhou Bo defeated the Yan forces and Zang Tu was captured. Lu Wan became the new King of Yan while Fan Kuai was sent to occupy Dai.[51]
Li Ji, an ex-general of Xiang Yu, also revolted but failed to make any headway against Han forces and was forced to flee.[51]
In 201 BC, courtiers accused Han Xin of plotting treason. They urged Gaozu to pre-emptively attack Han Xin. However Han Xin was brought in under the pretext of attending a meeting and demoted to Marquis of Huaiyin. The Kingdom of Chu was divided into two realms ruled by Liu Jia and Liu Jiao. Gaozu also made his son Liu Fei the King of Qi. Han Xin was eventually transferred to the northern frontier to defend it against the Xiongnu.[51]
Now both the country and the tactics of the Huns are different from those of the Chinese. Their lands are nothing but mountain-slopes with ways going up and down and winding through gorges in and out; in such regions our Chinese horses cannot compete with theirs. Along the tracks at the edge of precipices still they ride and shoot; our Chinese horse-archers can hardly do the like. Rain and storm, exhaustion and fatigue, hunger and thirst, nothing do they fear; our Chinese soldiers can in these things hardly compare with them. Such are the merits of the Huns.[52]
— Chao Cuo
In 200 BC, Xin, King of Han, surrendered to the Xiongnu at Mayi,
The hero, Modun, was a gifted child, but his father, Chanyu Touman, wanted the son of another of his wives to succeed him. To eliminate the competitor, he sent the young Modun to the Wusun people as a hostage; then he attacked the Wusun, hoping that they would kill their hostage in retribution. Modun escaped his fate and returned to the Xiongnu and his father, who was impressed with his ability as a warrior. This was to be Touman's undoing. Modun gathered a group of warriors who were bound to remain absolutely loyal to him. To train them, as the story goes, Modun ordered each man to shoot Modun's favorite horse, summarily executing any who refused; then he ordered each to shoot Modun's favorite wife, but again a few hesitated, a mistake they paid for with their own lives. Once the lesson had been learned, Modun ordered his followers to shoot his father. Apparently this time no one failed to discharge his arrows. Having in this way eliminated his own father, Modun became the chanyu, and, immediately upon succeeding to the throne, proceeded to defend the Xiongnu from the aggression of other nomadic tribes. His success allowed him to create a large empire that would humiliate the Han dynasty in 198 b.c. and, over the next few decades, impose its rule widely: from Manchuria to northern and western Mongolia, to the Altai region, to the Tianshan region, and beyond.[54]
In 198 BC, Wang Huang of Zhao and Chen Xi of Dai rebelled. Gaozu ordered Peng Yue, King of Liang, to join him in battle against the rebel forces, but he refused.[55]
In 197 BC, Gaozu eliminated the Zhao and Dai rebels. Gaozu's son
In 196 BC, Han Xin was arrested and executed despite some reservations from Gaozu, who still considered him to be the finest soldier of his era.[55] Xin was finally killed when he was cornered at the town of Canhe by Han general Chai Wu.[55]
In 195 BC, Han general Zhou Bo captured Chen Xi, who revealed that Lu Wan, King of Yan, had supported him in his rebellion. Zhou Bo stormed the Yan capital of Ji, forcing Lu Wan to seek refuge with the Xiongnu. One of Lu Wan's generals, Wei Man, fled east and usurped the throne of Gojoseon in Korea, beginning the era of Wiman Joseon. Meanwhile, Gaozu succumbed to the wound he received in battle against Ying Bu, and died on 28 February, 195 BC. He was succeeded by his 15-year-old son Liu Ying, posthumously Emperor Hui of Han.[58]
In 185 BC, the Han outlawed trade of iron with Nanyue, depriving them of the means to make weapons. In retaliation, Zhao Tuo proclaimed himself emperor and attacked Wu Rui, King of Changsha, taking a number of border towns.[59]
In 181 BC, a Han army marched south against Nanyue. However the hot climate and diseases of the region prevented them from advancing any further into mountains of Nanyue (in modern Guangdong and Guangxi).[59]
On Empress Lü's death in 180 BC, the Lü clan usurped the authority of the chief ministers. Liu Xiang, King of Qi, raised the banner of rebellion and called on the Liu clan to unite against the Lü. Zhou Bo overthrew the Lü clan and made Liu Heng, King of Dai, the new emperor, posthumously known as Emperor Wen of Han. Under the reign of Emperor Wen, the Han made peace with Nanyue and withdrew their army from the border. In return, Zhao Tuo announced that he only used the title of emperor in order to overawe the various kings of the south such as the Xiou (Western Ou), Minyue, and Luoluo. He received nominal vassalage from the Han court and the iron trade was resumed between the two states. [59]
In 179 BC, Modu Chanyu crossed the Yellow River and raided Yunzhong Commandery. An army of loyal tribes 85,000 led by Guan Ying managed to repel the Xiongnu invaders and forced them to withdraw.[60]
In 178 BC,
In 166 BC, Xiongnu forces under Laoshang raided within sight of Chang'an and carried off a large number of people and animals.[61]
In 165 BC, the Xiongnu returned and raided within sight of Chang'an again.[61]
In 164 BC, the Xiongnu under Laoshang overran Gansu and the Tarim Basin completely, driving out the Yuezhi and
In 155 BC, Chao Cuo convinced Emperor Jing of Han to take territory from the kingdoms of Chu, Zhao, and Jiaoxi.[63]
According to the Bingfa, where there are waterways fifteen feet wide, chariots cannot pass. Where rocks are piled up among the mountain forests, and rivers circulate between hills covered with woods and thickets; there the infantry arm comes into its own. Here two chariots or two horsemen do not equal one foot-soldier. Where there are rolling hills, wide open spaces and flat plains, there chariots and cavalry find their use, and ten foot-soldiers are not as good as one horseman. Flat places intersected with gorges, and abrupt declivities affording wide outlooks-commanding positions such as these should be held by archers and crossbowmen. Here a hundred men armed with hand-to-hand weapons are not equal to one archer. When two forces oppose one another on a plain covered with short grasses they are free to manoeuvre back and forth, and then the long bill (changji) is the right weapon. Three men with swords and shields are not as effective as one so armed. Among reeds and rushes and thickets of bamboo, where the undergrowth is rich and abundant, pikes and short spears are needed. Two men with long bills are not as good there as one with a pike. But among winding ways and dangerous precipices the sword and shield are to be preferred, and three archers or crossbowmen will not do as well as one swordsman.[52]
— Chao Cuo
In 154 BC, the
In 139 BC, Minyue invaded Dong'ou, which appealed to the Han for help. An imperial army under
In 137 BC, Minyue invaded Nanyue. An imperial army was sent against them, but the Minyue king's brother Zou Yushan usurped the throne and sued for peace, disbanding the army.[65]
Defeating the Xiongnu
In the summer of 133 BC, the Xiongnu Chanyu
Chariots were still used as the chief weapon in wars against the Xiongnu during the period of Emperor Wen, and their relative lack of mobility prevented the Han force from launching any distant expeditions or gaining major victories. This fighting method survived even into the early period of Emperor Wu. For example, in his first war against the Xiongnu, in 133 B.C., a large number of war chariots were mobilized as the chief military component. But when the chanyu of the Xiongnu, realizing that he had been tricked by misinformation provided by a Han spy, retreated to his territory, the Han forces were unable to overtake him. Emperor Wu then decided to give up completely the use of war chariots.[67]
— Chun-shu Chang
In the spring of 129 BC,
In the autumn of 128 BC, Wei Qing and Li Xi led a force of 40,000 and defeated the Xiongnu north of Yanmen Commandery.[68]
In the spring of 127 BC, the Xiongnu raided Liaoxi and Yanmen Commandery. Han Anguo tried to stop them with 700 men but failed and retreated to Yuyang. When Wei Qing and two other generals arrived, the Xiongnu fled. Wei Qing pushed forward and successfully evicted the Xiongnu south of the Yellow River, killed 2,300 Xiongnu at Gaoque (Shuofang), and captured 3,075 Xiongnu and one million livestock at Fuli (Wuyuan).[71][72]
In 126 BC, the Xiongnu led a force of 90,000 under the Wise King (Tuqi) of the Right to attack Dai Commandery, killing its grand administrator Gong You. They also raided Dingxiang and Shang, taking several thousand captives.[73]
[In the Xiongnu state] there are the Left and Right Wise Kings, Left and Right Luli Kings, Left and Right Generals, Left and Right Commandants, Left and Right Household Administrators and Left and Right Gudu Marquises. The Xiongnu word for “wise” is tuqi, therefore they often refer to the Heir Apparent as the Tuqi King of the Left. Starting from the Wise Kings of the Left and Right, down to the Household Administrators, the most important ones [command] ten thousand horsemen, the least important a few thousand; altogether they are referred to as the twenty-four high dignitaries.[74]
In the spring of 124 BC, Wei Qing and four other generals led a force of 100,000, mostly light cavalry, against the Xiongnu. The Wise King (Tuqi) of the Right assumed they would turn back after he retreated, but they did not, and he was surprised at his camp. The Han emerged victorious, capturing ten petty chieftains, 15,000 Xiongnu, and one million livestock.[71]
In the spring of 123 BC, Wei Qing and others led 100,000 cavalry against the Xiongnu, killing and capturing 3,000 north of Dingxiang. However Su Jian and Zhao Xin advanced too far with only 3,000 and were cut down. Zhao Xin defected while Su Jian managed to escape.[75][71]
In 122 BC, a Xiongnu force of 10,000 raided Shanggu.[75]
In the spring of 121 BC, Huo Qubing led a force of 10,000 cavalry and killed 8,960 Xiongnu west of the Yanzhi Mountains (in modern Gansu). In the summer he and several others marched west. Huo made it as far as the Qilian Mountains south of Jiuquan, killing and capturing 33,000 Xiongnu. The Xiongnu also invaded Yanmen Commandery so Li Guang and Zhang Qian gave chase. Li Guang was suddenly surrounded by 40,000 Xiongnu under the Wise King (Tuqi) of the Left but was able to hold off repeated attacks for two days until Zhang Qian arrived and the Xiongnu retreated. Zhang Qian was demoted to commoner status for arriving late.[76][77]
Now the chanyu has recently suffered at the hands of the Han and as a result the region occupied by the Hunye king has been depopulated. The Manyi peoples are typically greedy for Han goods. If we now take this opportunity and send rich bribes and gifts to the Wu-sun and persuade them to move farther east and occupy the region which formerly belonged to the Hunye king, then the Han could conclude a treaty of brotherhood with them, and, under the circumstances, they would surely do as we say. If we could get them to obey us, it would be like cutting off the right arm of the Xiongnu. Once an alliance has been forged with the Wusun, states from Daxia (Bactria) to its West could all be induced to come to court and become our outer vassals.[78]
In 120 BC, the Xiongnu raided Youbeiping and Dingxiang, carrying off 1,000 captives.[79]
In the summer of 119 BC, Wei Qing and Huo Qubing led a large force of 100,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, and 140,000 supply horses against the Xiongnu. When the Han forces arrived, they found the Xiongnu already prepared and waiting. Wei ensconced himself into a fortified ring of chariots and sent out 5,000 cavalry to probe the enemy. The Xiongnu chanyu Yizhixie responded with 10,000 cavalry. The two sides skirmished until evening when a strong wind arose, at which point Wei committed most of his cavalry and encircled the Xiongnu. Yizhixie attempted to break out of the encirclement but lost control of his men and routed. Huo's forces advanced by another route and defeated the Wise King (Tuqi) of the Left. Li Guang failed to rendezvous on time and committed suicide. A hundred thousand horses were lost during the campaign leading up to the Battle of Mobei, crippling Han cavalry forces for some time.[23]
The Xiongnu surrounded Li Guang's army and wiped out most of the men. Zhang Qian was accused of having arrived late at his rendezvous with Li Guang and was sentenced to execution, but on payment of a fine he was allowed to become a commoner. This same year the Han sent the swift cavalry general Huo Qubing against the Xiongnu. He defeated and killed 30,000 or 40,000 of the Xiongnu in the western region and rode as far as the Qilian Mountains. The following year the Hunye king led his barbarian hordes and surrendered to the Han, and the Xiongnu completely disappeared from the region from Jincheng and Hexi west along the Southern Mountains to the Salt Swamp. Occasionally Xiongnu scouts would appear, but even they were rare. Two years later the Han armies attacked the Shanyu and chased him north of the desert.[80]
Conquering south, east, and west
In 116 BC, the Xiongnu raided Liang Province.[81]
In 113 BC, chief minister Lü Jia of Nanyue prevented its king Zhao Xing from visiting the Han court. Han Qianqiu was sent to kill Lü Jia. He advanced into Nanyue with only 2,000 men, capturing several towns, until his local allies turned on him, slaying him and his men.[82]
In 112 BC, the Han invaded eastern Tibet with 25,000 cavalry on grounds of Qiang raiding.[82]
In the autumn of 111 BC, Gongsun He and Zhao Ponu led 25,000 cavalry against the Xiongnu, but failed to engage them. Lu Bode and Yang Pu led a force of 35,000 against Nanyue.[83]
In 110 BC, Han forces defeated Nanyue and annexed the region. The king of Minyue, Zou Yushan, thought he would be attacked as well, and pre-emptively attacked Han garrisons. In the winter the Han sent another force and defeated Minyue. The area was abandoned however until further colonization in 200 AD. Emperor Wu of Han assembled his forced in Shuofang and challenged Wuwei Chanyu to meet him in battle. Wuwei declined.[84]
In 109 BC, the Han sent a force of 5,000 under
In 108 BC, a Han army of 57,000 under Xun Zhi and Yang Pu invaded Gojoseon. Xun Zhi advanced too far and was defeated. Yang Pu made it to Wanggeom-seong and was defeated. In spring they regrouped and laid siege to Wanggeom-seong. Xun Zhi got into a fight with Yang Pu and had him arrested, combining both their forces under one general. Eventually the people of the city killed their king, Ugeo of Gojoseon, and surrendered. Zhao Ponu sallied out with 25,000 cavalry against the Xiongnu but could not find them. He then attacked Loulan Kingdom and Jushi Kingdom with only 700 cavalry, subjugating them.[86]
In the autumn of 104 BC, Li Guangli led a force of 20,000 convicted conscripts and 6,000 cavalry against Dayuan. The oasis states refused to provide food so they had to attack them to procure necessities.[87] Han deserters who surrendered to Dayuan taught them how to cast metal into coins and weapons.[88]
In the summer of 103 BC,
In the autumn of 102 BC,
In 101 BC, the Xiongnu raided Dingxiang, Yunzhong, Zhangye, and Jiuquan.[91]
In the summer of 99 BC, Li Guangli and three other generals led a force of 35,000 against the Xiongnu in the Tian Shan range. Initially successful, Li Guangli killed some 10,000 Xiongnu, but was surrounded and had to fortify. They sortied out and managed to drive back the Xiongnu before making a run for it. The Xiongnu gave chase and dealt heavy casualties on the Han army. Li Guangli only returned with 40% of his forces. Li Ling and Lu Bode had been left further back earlier as a rear guard, but Lu Bode objected to serving under Li Ling and left. Li Ling decided to advance by himself with only 5,000 infantry, confident that his force of crossbowmen would be able to handle any force they encountered. He was confronted with a force of 30,000 Xiongnu and had to fortify behind a wagon laager between two hills. The Xiongnu made repeated charges on his position, but failed to overcome Li Ling's crossbow and shield/spear formation, suffering heavy casualties. When Li Ling's forces made a break for it, the Xiongnu chased after them, harassing them until nightfall. Only 400 men made it back and Li Ling was himself captured.[92]
In the spring of 97 BC, Li Guangli and two other generals led a force of over 160,000 against the Xiongnu. Li's forces were supposedly routed by only 10,000 Xiongnu and fought a running battle for ten days. Gongsun Ao fought an inconclusive battle with the Wise King (Dugi) of the Left. Han Yue failed to encounter any Xiongnu.[93]
In the summer of 94 BC, Xu Xiangru led a force of auxiliaries from the Western Regions against Suoju (Yarkant County) and killed their king, capturing 1,500 people.[94]
In the spring of 90 BC, Li Guangli and two other generals led a force of 79,000 against the Xiongnu. Initially successful, Li overextended and his supplies ran out, exhausting his men and horses. The Xiongnu outpaced them and dug ditches across their line of retreat. When they tried to cross the ditches, the Xiongnu fell on them, routing the entire army. Li Guangli surrendered. The other generals Shang Qiucheng and Ma Tong managed to return safely. Cheng Wan attacked Jushi Kingdom with a force of 35,000 and secured their king's surrender.[95]
In 87 BC, Wen Zhong subjugated a city near modern Islamabad.
In 83 BC, Han relinquished control over Lintun Commandery and Zhenfan Commandery.[96]
In 78 BC, Fan Mingyou led 20,000 soldiers to aid the Wuhuan against the Xiongnu, but they arrived too late, and attacked the Wuhuan instead.[97]
In 75 BC, Goguryeo took some territory from Xuantu Commandery.[98]
In 71 BC, Chang Hui and two other generals led a force of 100,000 to aid the Wusun against the Xiongnu. The majority of the forces failed to find any Xiongnu, but Chang Hui successfully aided the Wusun in defeating a Xiongnu invasion. However the Xiongnu came back in winter and took many captives. On the way back across the Altai Mountains, the Xiongnu suffered heavy casualties from a sudden blizzard, devastating their army. The next year the Xiongnu were attacked on all sides by Wusun, Wuhuan, and the Han. One third of all Xiongnu died.[99]
In 68 BC,
In 65 BC, the Qiang revolted in eastern Tibet and Suoju rebelled as well. Feng Fengshi was sent in with 15,000 men and subdued Suoju.[100]
In 64 BC, the Xiongnu raided
In 61 BC, Zhao Chongguo advanced into eastern Tibet and set up colonies near Qinghai Lake. He also advocated for reduction of cavalry forces to reduce military expenditure.[101]
Western protectorate
In 60 BC, Xianxianchan, the Rizhu King of Jushi Kingdom, surrendered to Zheng Ji. The Protectorate of the Western Regions was created and the Han gained hegemony over the western oasis states.[102]
In 58 BC,
In 55 BC, the Xiongnu coalesced into two groups, one under
In 51 BC, Huhanye was defeated by
In 50 BC,
In 48 BC,
In 43 BC, Huhanye moved back to the north, starting the era of Western and Eastern Xiongnu.[103]
In 42 BC, the Qiang rebelled and defeated a force of 12,000 under Feng Fengshi.[104]
In 41 BC, Feng Fengshi returned to eastern Tibet with 60,000 men and crushed the Qiang rebellion.[104]
In 36 BC,
In 12 BC, Duan Huizong led a force to Wusun and resolved a dispute.[107]
In 6 AD, a petty king in the area of the former Jushi Kingdom defected to the Xiongnu, who turned him over to the Han.[108]
In 7 AD, the Han convinced the Wuhuan to stop sending tribute to the Xiongnu, who immediately attacked and defeated the Wuhuan.[108]
In 9 AD, Wang Mang proclaimed himself emperor of the Xin dynasty.[108]
In 10 AD, some officers of the Protector General Dan Qin rebelled, slew him, and fled to the Xiongnu.[109]
In 11 AD,
In 16 AD, an army under
Eastern Han
In 23 AD,
In 35 AD, Emperor Guangwu of Han, also known as the "Bronze Horse Emperor,"[115] reunited the Han dynasty.[112]
In 40 AD,
In 42 AD, the Trung sisters' rebellion was defeated by Ma Yuan.[117]
In 49 AD, the Qiang tribes retook the Qinghai region[118]
In 50 AD, Bi chanyu and the Southern
In 57 AD, the Qiang led by Dianyu raided Jincheng Commandery.[120]
In 59 AD, a Han army defeated Dianyu.[120]
In 62 AD, the Northern Xiongnu made a major raid but was repelled.[121]
In 69 AD, Liumiao the King of the Ailao, submitted to the Han dynasty. His territory was incorporated under eight new counties, extending Han territory into modern Myanmar.[122]
In 73 AD, Dou Gu led a force of 12,000 against the Xiongnu and defeated Huyan in modern northeastern Xinjiang.[123]
In 74 AD, Dou Gu led another expedition to the Western Regions and gained the submission of Jushi, restoring the Protectorate of the Western Regions.[123]
In 75 AD, the Xiongnu besieged Jushi and Chen Mu was killed by the locals.[123]
In 76 AD, Lei'ao the King of the Ailao, gathered 3,000 men and attacked the headquarters of Yongchang Commandery and drove out Han administration. Nine thousand Han militia and non-Chinese auxiliaries were called up from surrounding commanderies and defeated him in the following year. His head was sent to Luoyang.[124]
In 77 AD, the Protectorate of the Western Regions was abandoned again.[125]
In 78 AD, Ban Chao defeated Gumo, which was aided by Kangju.[126]
In 84 AD, Ban Chao brought forces against Shule, but could not defeat them due to reinforcements from their ally, Kangju. Ban Chao sent gifts to the Kushan Empire and they influenced the Kangju troops to retreat. The king of Suoju went with them.[127]
In 87 AD,
In the summer of 89 AD, Dou Xian led an army of around 45,000 against the Northern Xiongnu and defeated them. This marked the effective end of Xiongnu power in the steppes and the rise of the less organized but more aggressive Xianbei.[128]
The ideal situation on the frontier was to have a non-Chinese ruler so powerful within his own lands that his orders were obeyed but so dependent on Chinese goodwill, or vulnerable to Chinese threats, that he kept his people from troubling imperial territory. By destroying the Northern Shanyu, the Han removed a potential client and found itself faced with the incoherent but spreading power of the Xianbi, while the Southern regime was overwhelmed by its new responsibilities. So the empire destroyed a weak and all but suppliant enemy for the benefit of a junior ally who could not make good use of the victory, to the ultimate profit of a far more dangerous enemy.[129]
— Rafe de Crespigny
In 90 AD, the
In 96 AD, Han forces attacked the Xiongnu king Wujuzhan and killed him.[131]
In 107 AD,
In 109 AD,
In 110 AD,
In 112 AD, Dianlian died and was succeeded by his son Lianchang. Lianchang was too young to exercise authority and another man of the tribe, Langmo, took charge of strategy. The new regime was significantly less effective under the regent and failed to make any headway against Han forces.[134]
In 116 AD, the Han general
In 117 AD, Lianchang was assassinated and forces under Ren Shang ended Qiang raids.[136]
In 120 AD, the Qiang chieftain Jiwu attacked Jincheng Commandery and was defeated by the general Ma Xian.[137]
In 121 AD, the Xianbei under Qizhijian raided Han territory.[138] The Qiang Shaodang tribe under Manu raided Wuwei Commandery but were defeated by the general Ma Xian the following year.[139] Go Suseong of Goguryeo attacked Xuantu Commandery but was defeated by a combined Han-Buyeo army.[140]
In 126 AD,
In 127 AD, the Xianbei raided Liaodong Commandery and Xuantu Commandery.[143]
In 128 AD, the Xianbei attacked Yuyang Commandery.[143]
In 136 AD, people known as the
In 137 AD, a rebellion occurred in
In 140 AD, the
In 141 AD, Wusi and Cheniu were defeated. Cheniu surrendered while Wusi was killed by his followers in 143.[147]
In 142 AD, the Qiang rebellion was put down.[136]
In 144 AD, a rebellion occurred in
In 145 AD, the Xianbei raided Dai Commandery.[148]
In 157 AD, a rebellion occurred in
In 166 AD, the Xianbei started conducting annual raids.[150]
In 167 AD, Duan Jiong conducted an anti-Qiang campaign and massacred Qiang populations as well as settled them outside the frontier.[136]
In 169 AD, Geng Lin attacked Goguryeo forced the king to offer submission.[151]
In 168 AD, the Xianbei under Tanshihuai raided Han territory.[152]
In 177 AD,
In 178 AD, Liang Long rebelled in the south.[153]
In 181 AD, Zhu Juan defeated Liang Long's rebellion.[153]
In 182 AD, the Xianbei khan Tanshihuai died and his weak successor Helian failed to keep the confederacy intact.[154]
In 184 AD, the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Liang Province rebellion erupted, leading to the fragmentation and downfall of the Han dynasty.[155]
Full list of military campaigns
Han–Xiongnu War
Year | Aggressor | Forces | Commander | Title | Place of departure | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
200 BC Battle of Baideng |
Han | 320,000 | Emperor Gaozu of Han | Besieged for four days until the emperor's wife bribed the Xiongnu to go away | ||
197 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Dai Commandery | ||||
196 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Dai Commandery (Canhe) | ||||
195 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Shanggu and eastward | ||||
182 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Longxi Commandery (Didao) and Tianshui (Ayang) | ||||
181 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Longxi Commandery (Didao) and abducted 2,000 people | ||||
179 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Yunzhong Commandery and plundered tribes loyal to Han | ||||
177 BC | Xiongnu | Conducted massacre at He'nan and Shang | ||||
169 BC | Xiongnu | |||||
166 BC | Xiongnu | 140,000 | Raided Anding (Chaona and Xiaoguan), Beidi, Anding (Pengyang), and Liang (Ganjuan Palace) Burned Huizhong Palace | |||
158 BC | Xiongnu | 30,000 | Raided Shang, Yunzhong Commandery, and Dai Commandery (Gouzhu) | |||
148 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Yan Province
| ||||
144 BC | Xiongnu | Stole horses from Yanmen Commandery, Yunzhong Commandery (Wuchuan), and Shang | ||||
142 BC | Xiongnu | Attacked Yanmen Commandery and killed Governor Feng Jing | ||||
133 BC (Summer) Battle of Mayi |
Han | 300,000 | Wang Hui Han Anguo Gongsun He Li Guang Li Zi |
Failed to ambush Xiongnu Wang Hui committed suicide | ||
129 BC (Spring) | Han | 40,000 | Wei Qing | General of chariot and cavalry | Shanggu | Victory: Killed several thousand Xiongnu Captured 700 Xiongnu |
Gongsun Ao | Cavalry general | Dai | Defeated: 700 men lost | |||
Gongsun He | General of light chariot | Yunzhong | Failed to find Xiongnu | |||
Li Guang | General of resolute cavalry | Yanmen | Captured by Xiongnu, but escaped and returned | |||
129 BC (Winter) | Xiongnu | Raided Shanggu, Yuyang, and killed the governor of Liaoxi | ||||
128 BC (Autumn) | Han | 40,000 | Wei Qing | General of chariot and cavalry | Dai | Victory |
Li Xi | General | Dai | ||||
127 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Liaoxi and killed its governor Raided Yanmen and carried off several thousand men Defeated Han Anguo | ||||
127 BC (Spring) | Han | Wei Qing | General of chariot and cavalry | Yunzhong | Killed 2,300 Xiongnu at Gaoque (Shuofang) Captured 3,075 Xiongnu and one million livestock at Fuli (Wuyuan) | |
Hao Xian | Governor of Shanggu | Yunzhong | ||||
Li Xi | General | Dai | ||||
126 BC | Xiongnu | 90,000 | Wise king (Dugi) of the right | Raided Dai Commandery, Dingxiang, and Shang, taking several thousand slaves Killed the grand administrator of Dai Commandery, Gong You | ||
124 BC (Spring) | Han | 100,000 (mostly light cavalry) | Wei Qing | General of chariot and cavalry | Shuofang (Gaoque) | Captured ten petty chieftains, 15,000 Xiongnu, and one million livestock |
Hao Xian | ||||||
Li Suo | Colonel | |||||
Zhao Buyu | Colonel | |||||
Gongsun Rongnu | Colonel | |||||
Dou Yiru | Colonel | |||||
Li Xi | General | Yubeiping | ||||
Zhang Cigong | General | Yubeiping | ||||
Gongsun He | Cavalry general | Shuofang | ||||
Su Jian | Scouting and attacking general | Shuofang | ||||
Li Cai |
General of light chariots | Shuofang | ||||
Li Ju | General of crossbowmen | Shuofang | ||||
Han Yue | Chief commander | |||||
123 BC (Spring) | Han | 100,000 cavalry | Wei Qing | General in chief | Dingxiang | Killed over 3,000 Xiongnu north of Dingxiang |
Hao Xian | Governor of Shanggu | |||||
Huo Qubing | Swift colonel | Killed and captured 2,228 Xiongnu | ||||
Gongsun Ao | General of the center | |||||
Gongsun He | General of the left | |||||
Zhao Xin | General of the vanguard | Defeated and surrendered to Xiongnu | ||||
Su Jian | General of the right | Defeated and escaped alone 3,000 Han soldiers killed | ||||
Li Guang | General of the rear | |||||
Li Ju | General of crossbowmen | |||||
122 BC | Xiongnu | 10,000 | Raided Shanggu | |||
121 BC (Spring) | Han | 10,000 cavalry | Huo Qubing | General of swift cavalry | Longxi | Killed and captured 8,960 Xiongnu west of the Yanzhi Mountains (in modern Gansu) |
Zhao Ponu | Hawklike attacking marshal | |||||
121 BC (Summer) | Han | 20,000+ cavalry | Huo Qubing | Hawklike attacking marshal | Beidi | Killed and captured 33,000 Xiongnu south of Jiuquan |
Zhao Ponu | Hawklike attacking marshal | |||||
Gao Bushi | Colonel | Captured 1,768 Xiongnu | ||||
Pu Peng | Colonel | Captured five Xiongnu kings | ||||
Gongsun Ao | Marquis of Heqi | Beidi | Got lost and failed to make contact with Huo | |||
24,000 cavalry | Zhang Qian | Commander of the Palace Guard | Yubeiping | Was late | ||
4,000 cavalry | Li Guang | Chief of palace attendants | Yubeiping | Killed 3,000 Xiongnu bu lost nearly his entire force and escaped alone | ||
120 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Youbeiping and Xingxiang, carrying off 1,000 captives | ||||
119 BC (Summer) Battle of Mobei |
Han | 50,000 cavalry 140,000 volunteer cavalry 200,000+ infantry |
Wei Qing | Supreme commander | Dingxiang | Killed 19,000 Xiongnu Seized the fort of Zhaoxin |
Guo Chang | Colonel | |||||
Xun Zhi | ||||||
Chang Hui | Governor of Xihe | |||||
Sui Cheng | Governor of Yunzhong | |||||
Li Guang | General of the vanguard | Late at rendezvous and committed suicide | ||||
Zhao Yiji | General of the right | Late at rendezvous | ||||
Gongsun Ao | General of the center | |||||
Cao Xiang | General of the rear | |||||
Gongsun He | General of the left | |||||
50,000 cavalry | Huo Qubing | Supreme commander | Dai, Yubeiping | |||
Li Gan | Colonel | |||||
Xu Ziwei | Colonel | Killed and captured 12,700 Xiongnu | ||||
Lu Bode | Governor of Yubeiping | |||||
Wei Shan | Chief commander of Bodi | Captured a Xiongnu king | ||||
Zhao Ponu | Congpiao Marquis | |||||
Jie | Governor of Yuyang | |||||
Zhao Anji | Marquis of Changwu | |||||
Fu Luji | Colonel | |||||
Yi Jixian | ||||||
116 BC | Xiongnu | Raided Liang Province | ||||
111 BC (Autumn) | Han | 15,000 cavalry | Gongsun He | General of Fuju | Wuyuan | Failed to find Xiongnu |
10,000 cavalry | Zhao Ponu | General of Xiong River | Lingju | Failed to find Xiongnu | ||
110 BC (Winter) | Han | 180,000 cavalry | Emperor Wu of Han | Failed to find Xiongnu | ||
108 BC | Han | 25,000 cavalry | Zhao Ponu | Failed to find Xiongnu | ||
103 BC (Summer) | Han | 20,000 cavalry | Zhao Ponu | General of Junji | Killed and captured 2,000+ Xiongnu but got surrounded and surrendered | |
102 BC | Xiongnu | Wise king (Dugi) of the right | Raided Jiuquan and Zhangye, capturing several thousand people | |||
99 BC (Summer) Battle of Tian Shan |
Han | 30,000 cavalry | Li Guangli | Ershi General | Shuofang | Killed and captured 10,000 Xiongnu but was surrounded on the way back and most of his forces were killed |
Gongsun Ao | General of Yinyu | Xihe | ||||
Lu Bode | Chief commandant of crossbowmen | Juyan | ||||
5,000 infantry/cavalry | Li Ling | Chief commandant of cavalry | Juyan | Killed and captured 10,000 Xiongnu but was defeated and surrendered Only 400 survived | ||
97 BC (Spring) | Han | 50,000 cavalry 70,000 infantry |
Li Guangli | Ershi General | Shuofang | Defeated |
10,000 infantry | Lu Bode | Chief commandant of crossbowmen | Juyan | |||
30,000 infantry | Han Yue | Scouting and attacking general | Wuyuan | |||
10,00 cavalry 30,000 infantry |
Gongsun Ao | General of Yinyu | Yanmen | Defeated | ||
90 BC (Spring) | Han | 9,000 cavalry (with auxiliaries) | Li Guangli | Ershi General | Wuyuan | Surrendered |
30,000 cavalry | Shang Qiucheng | Grand secretary | Xihe | Victory | ||
40,000 cavalry | Ma Tong | Marquis of Chonghe | Jiuquan | |||
71 BC | Han | 150,000 cavalry 50,000 Wusun |
Chang Hui | Special envoy | Captured 39,000 Xiongnu and 650,000 livestock | |
64 BC | Xiongnu | Attacked Jiaohe and repelled by Han reinforcements
| ||||
36 BC Battle of Zhizhi |
Han | 40,000 | Gan Yanshou | Protector general | Western Regions | Victory: Killed Zhizhi Chanyu and 1,518 XiongnuCaptured 145 Xiongnu |
Chen Tang | Deputy Colonel | Western Regions | ||||
44 | Han | Ma Yuan | General | Defeated | ||
45 | Xiongnu | Raided Changshan |
Northern and Southern Xiongnu
Year | Aggressor | Forces | Commander | Title | Place of departure | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
62 | Northern Xiongnu | Repelled | ||||
73 Battle of Yiwulu |
Han | 12,000 cavalry | Dou Gu | Jiuquan | Pushed the Northern Xiongnu back to Barkul Nor (Lake Pulei) | |
74 | Han | 14,000 cavalry | Dou Gu | Captured Jushi (Turpan) | ||
75 | Northern Xiongnu | Evicted the Han from the Western Regions | ||||
89 Battle of the Altai Mountains |
Han | 8,000 cavalry 30,000 Xiongnu cavalry 8,000 Qiang auxiliaries |
Dou Xian | Killed 13,000 Northern Xiongnu 81 Xiongnu tribes (200,000) surrendered Captured Yiwu | ||
96 | Han | Killed the Southern Xiongnu king Wujuzhan | ||||
109–110 | Southern Xiongnu | 13,000 | Wanshi Chanyu | Raided Zhongshan Commandery but was ultimately defeated by Liang Qin
| ||
140–143 | Southern Xiongnu | 8,000 | Wusi and Cheniu | Rebelled against the Southern Xiongnu Xiuli Chanyu and raided Han territory Overran Tiger's Teeth encampment (near Chang'an) Cheniu was defeated by Zhang Dan in Yanmen Commandery and surrendered Wusi was defeated by Ma Xu in Xihe Commandery and was killed by his followers |
Southern wars
Year | Aggressor | Target | Forces | Commander | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
181 BC | Nanyue | Changsha | |||
113 BC | Han | Nanyue | 2,000 | Han Qianqiu | Defeated |
112–111 BC (Autumn) Han conquest of Nanyue Han campaigns against Minyue |
Han | Nanyue Minyue |
35,000 | Lu Bode Yang Pu Han Yue Wang Wenshu |
Captured the capital Cangwu submitted
|
109 BC Han conquest of Dian |
Han | Dian Kingdom Yelang |
Guo Chang Wei Guang |
Annexed Dian, Yelang, and other tribes in Yunnan, establishing Yizhou Commandery | |
40 AD Trung sisters' rebellion |
Trung sisters |
Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, and Rinan commanderies | Trung sisters |
Rebelled | |
42 AD Trung sisters' rebellion |
Han | Trung sisters |
8,000 regulars 12,000 militia |
Ma Yuan | Victory |
136 AD | Qulian | Han | Several thousand | People known as the Qulian from beyond the southern frontier invaded Rinan Commandery , causing turmoil and rebellion
| |
137 AD | Natives | Han | Peacefully quelled | ||
144 AD | Natives | Han | Peacefully quelled | ||
157 AD | Chu Đạt | Han | 2,000 | Chu Đạt | Jiuzhen Commandery and was defeated
|
178 AD | Liang Long | Han | Liang Long | Rebelled in commanderies | |
181 AD | Han | Liang Long | Zhu Jun | Victory |
Korean wars
Year | Aggressor | Forces | Commander | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
109 BC | Han | 50,000 | Yang Pu | Defeated |
7,000 | Xun Zhi | Defeated | ||
108 BC (Spring) | Han | Xun Zhi Yang Pu |
Besieged Wanggeom-seong for several months before their officials killed Ugeo of Gojoseon and surrendered Annexed and reorganized into the Four Commanderies of Han | |
75 BC | Goguryeo | Attacked Xuantu Commandery | ||
12 | Goguryeo | Repelled | ||
23 | Koreans | Took slaves from Lelang Commandery | ||
106 | Goguryeo | Took some territory from Xuantu Commandery | ||
121 | Goguryeo | Go Suseong | Attacked Xuantu Commandery but was defeated by a Han-Buyeo army | |
132 | Han | Retook some territory in Xuantu Commandery | ||
149 | Goguryeo | Raided Xuantu Commandery | ||
169 | Han | Geng Lin | Forced Goguryeo into submission |
Western regions
Year | Target | Forces | Commander | Title | Place of departure | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
108 BC Battle of Loulan |
Loulan Kingdom | 700 | Zhao Ponu | General of the Xiong River | Subjugated Loulan Kingdom and Jushi Kingdom | |
104–103 BC (Autumn) War of the Heavenly Horses |
Dayuan | 6,000 auxiliary cavalry 20,000+ convicted conscripts |
Li Guangli | General of Sutrishna | Defeated and very few made it back alive | |
Zhao Shicheng | Director of martial law | |||||
Wang Hui | Expedition guide | |||||
Li Che | Colonel | |||||
102–101 BC (Autumn-spring) War of the Heavenly Horses |
Dayuan | 60,000 infantry/cavalry 100,000 oxen 30,000 horses 20,000+ donkeys, mules, and camels |
Li Guangli | General of Sutrishna | Dunhuang | Massacred the city of Uzgen) before turning backReached Kangju Only 10,000 men survived |
Wang Shencheng | Colonel | Killed | ||||
Zhao Shicheng | Colonel | |||||
Li Che | Colonel | |||||
Shangguan Jie | Chief commandant of foraging | |||||
Hu Chongge | Former grand herald | |||||
94 BC (Summer) | Suoju (around modern Yarkant County) | Auxiliaries from the Western Regions | Xu Xiangru | Imperial inspector | Killed King Fuluo of Suoju and captured 1,500 people | |
90 BC | Jushi Kingdom | 5,000 Han soldiers 30,000 auxiliaries from the states of the Western Regions |
Cheng Wan | Marquis of Kailing | Subjugated Jushi Kingdom and captured its king Marks formal presence of the Han in the Western Regions | |
87 BC | A city near modern Islamabad | Wen Zhong | Chief commandant | Subjugated a city near modern Islamabad | ||
69 BC | Qiuci |
47,500 auxiliaries from the Western Regions | Chang Hui | Qiuci submitted to Han suzerainty
| ||
68–67 BC Battle of Jushi |
Jushi Kingdom | 1,500 conscripted convicts | Zheng Ji | Gentleman in attendance | Quli | Attacked Jushi Kingdom twice, succeeded the second time and started colonizing the area while the king fled to Wusun |
Sima Xi | Colonel | Quli | ||||
65 BC | Suoju (near modern Yarkant County) | 15,000 auxiliaries from the Western Regions | Feng Fengshi | Marquis of Wei | Yixun | Forced the king of Suoju to commit suicide and enthroned another king |
16 | Yanqi | Guo Qin | The city is massacred | |||
78 | Gumo | Ban Chao | Conquered | |||
84 | Shule | Ban Chao | Conquered | |||
87 | Suoju (near modern Yarkant County) | 25,000 | Ban Chao | Conquered | ||
90 | Han dynasty | Xie (Kushan Empire) | Repelled by Ban Chao |
Qiang
Year | Aggressor | Forces | Commander | Place of departure | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
112 BC | Han | 20,000 cavalry | Attacked Qiang in eastern Tibet | ||
65 BC | Qiang | Revolted in eastern Tibet | |||
61 BC | Han | Zhao Chongguo | Advanced into eastern Tibet and established colonies near Qinghai Lake | ||
42 BC | Qiang | Revolted and defeated a force of 12,000 under Feng Fengshi | |||
41 BC | Han | 60,000 | Feng Fengshi | Crushed the Qiang rebellion in eastern Tibet | |
49 | Qiang | Retook modern Qinghai | |||
57 | Qiang | Dianyu | Raided Jincheng Commandery | ||
59 | Han | Defeated Dianyu | |||
107–112 | Qiang | Dianlian | Conquered significant territory in the north | ||
117 | Han | Ren Shang | Defeated the Qiang invasion | ||
121 | Qiang | Manu | Raided Wuwei Commandery | ||
140 | Qiang | Rebellion | |||
142 | Han | Put down rebellion | |||
167–168 | Han | Duan Jiong | Anding | Massacre of Qiang |
Wuhuan
Year | Aggressor | Forces | Commander | Place of departure | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
78 BC | Han | 20,000 | Fan Mingyou | Originally sent to aid the Wuhuan against the Xiongnu, they were too late, and attacked the Wuhuan instead | |
109 | Wuhuan | Defeated Han forces in Wuyuan Commandery |
Xianbei
Year | Aggressor | Area invaded | Commander | Forces | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
109 | Xianbei | Wuyuan Commandery | Defeated local Han forces | ||
121 | Xianbei | Qizhijian | |||
126 | Xianbei | Dai Commandery | Qizhijian | Killed Administrator Li Chao | |
127 | Xianbei | Liaodong Commandery and Xuantu Commandery | |||
128 | Xianbei | Yuyang Commandery | |||
145 | Xianbei | Dai Commandery | |||
166 | Xianbei | ||||
168 | Xianbei | Tanshihuai | |||
177 | Han | Tian Yan |
30,000 | Defeated |
Rebellions
Notable military leaders
Western Han
Eastern Han
References
- ^ "120". Book of Later Han (in Chinese).
武冠,俗谓之大冠,环缨无蕤,以青系为绲,加双鹖尾,竖左右,为鹖冠云 [Wuguan, commonly known as the big crown, has no protactinium in the ring, with the blue line as the silk, with double tails, vertical left and right, for the scorpion crown cloud]
- ^ 禽经 [Poultry classics] (in Chinese).
鹖,毅鸟也,毅不知死。状类鸡,首有冠,性敢于斗,死犹不置,是不知死也。《左传》:鹖冠,武土戴之,象其勇也,[He, Yi bird also, Yi does not know how to die. Like chickens, they have a crown first, and they dare to fight. "Zuo Zhuan": Heguan, Wu Tu wears it, like Qi Yong, ]
- ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 479.
- ^ Peers 1995, p. 15.
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- ^ Gat 2006, p. 367.
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- ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 481-482.
- ^ Chang 2007, p. 186.
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- ^ Bielenstein 1980, p. 117.
- ^ Peers 1995, p. 16.
- ^ Crespigny 2017, p. 163.
- ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 480.
- ^ Cosmo 2009, p. 74.
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- ^ Graff 2002, p. 38.
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- ^ Chang 2007, p. 174-175.
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- ^ Lorge 2011, p. 68.
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- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 160-158.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 161.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 161-162.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 163.
- ^ Watson 1993, p. 245.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 164.
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- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 166.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 168.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 169.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 623.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 171.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 171-172.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 172.
- ^ Whiting 2002, p. 173.
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