Military science
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Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force.
Military personnel obtain
In military history, military science had been used during the period of
In
History
Even until the Second World War, military science was written in English starting with capital letters, and was thought of as an academic discipline alongside physics, philosophy and the medical sciences. In part this was due to the general mystique that accompanied education in a world where, as late as the 1880s, 75% of the European population was illiterate.[citation needed] The ability by the officers to make complex calculations required for the equally complex "evolutions" of the troop movements in linear warfare that increasingly dominated the Renaissance and later history, and the introduction of the gunpowder weapons into the equation of warfare only added to the veritable arcana of building fortifications as it seemed to the average individual.
Until the early 19th century, one observer, a British veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, Major John Mitchell, thought that it seemed nothing much had changed from the application of force on a battlefield since the days of the Greeks.[2] He suggested that this was primarily so because as Clausewitz suggested, "unlike in any other science or art, in war the object reacts".[2]
Until this time, and even after the
Military implements, the supply of an army, its organization, tactics, and discipline, have constituted the elements of military science in all ages; but improvement in weapons and accoutrements appears to lead and control all the rest.[4]
The breakthrough of sorts made by Clausewitz in suggesting eight principles on which such methods can be based, in Europe, for the first time presented an opportunity to largely remove the element of chance and error from command decision making process.
The military science on which the model of German combat operations was built for the First World War remained largely unaltered from the Napoleonic model, but took into the consideration the vast improvements in the
It is not, however, true to say that military theorists and commanders were suffering from some collective case of stupidity. Their analysis of military history convinced them that decisive and aggressive strategic offensive was the only doctrine of victory, and feared that overemphasis of firepower, and the resultant dependence on entrenchment would make this all but impossible, and leading to the battlefield stagnant in advantages of the defensive position, destroying troop morale and willingness to fight.[10] Because only the offensive could bring victory, lack of it, and not the firepower, was blamed for the defeat of the Imperial Russian Army in the Russo-Japanese War. Foch thought that "In strategy as well as in tactics one attacks".[11]
In many ways military science was born as a result of the experiences of the Great War. "Military implements" had changed armies beyond recognition with cavalry to virtually disappear in the next 20 years. The "supply of an army" would become a science of logistics in the wake of massive armies, operations and troops that could fire ammunition faster than it could be produced, for the first time using vehicles that used the combustion engine, a watershed of change.[12] Military "organisation" would no longer be that of the linear warfare, but assault teams, and battalions that were becoming multi-skilled with the introduction of machine guns and mortars and, for the first time, forcing military commanders to think not only in terms of rank and file, but force structure.
Tactics changed, too, with infantry for the first time segregated from the horse-mounted troops, and required to cooperate with tanks, aircraft and new artillery tactics. Perception of military discipline, too, had changed. Morale, despite strict disciplinarian attitudes, had cracked in all armies during the war, but the best-performing troops were found to be those where emphasis on discipline had been replaced with display of personal initiative and group cohesiveness such as that found in the Australian Corps during the Hundred Days Offensive. The military sciences' analysis of military history that had failed European commanders was about to give way to a new military science, less conspicuous in appearance, but more aligned to the processes of science of testing and experimentation, the scientific method, and forever "wed" to the idea of the superiority of technology on the battlefield.
Currently military science still means many things to different organisations. In the United Kingdom and much of the European Union the approach is to relate it closely to the civilian application and understanding. For example, in Belgium's
Employment of military skills
In the first instance military science is concerned with who will participate in military operations, and what sets of skills and knowledge they will require to do so effectively and somewhat ingeniously.
Military organization
Develops optimal methods for the administration and organization of military units, as well as the military as a whole. In addition, this area studies other associated aspects as mobilization/demobilization, and military government for areas recently conquered (or liberated) from enemy control.
Force structuring
Force structuring is the method by which personnel and the weapons and equipment they use are organized and trained for military operations, including combat. Development of force structure in any country is based on strategic, operational, and tactical needs of the
Force structure development is guided by doctrinal considerations of strategic, operational and tactical deployment and employment of formations and units to territories, areas and zones where they are expected to perform their missions and tasks. Force structuring applies to all
In the United States force structure is guided by the table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E). The TOE is a document published by the U.S. Department of Defense which prescribes the organization, manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.
Force structuring also provides information on the mission and capabilities of specific units, as well as the unit's current status in terms of posture and readiness. A general TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as Infantry) follow the same structural guidelines which allows for more efficient financing, training, and employment of like units operationally.
Military education and training
Studies the methodology and practices involved in training soldiers, NCOs (non-commissioned officers, i.e. sergeants and corporals), and officers. It also extends this to training small and large units, both individually and in concert with one another for both the regular and reserve organizations. Military training, especially for officers, also concerns itself with general education and political indoctrination of the armed forces.
Military concepts and methods
Much of capability development depends on the concepts which guide
Military history
Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years, and the essential tactics, strategy, and goals of military operations have been unchanging throughout history. As an example, one notable maneuver is the
Via the study of history, the military seeks to avoid past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned. The main areas military history includes are the history of wars, battles, and combats, history of the military art, and history of each specific military service.
Military strategy and doctrines
Military strategy is in many ways the centerpiece of military science. It studies the specifics of planning for, and engaging in combat, and attempts to reduce the many factors to a set of principles that govern all interactions of the field of battle. In Europe these principles were first defined by Clausewitz in his
Modern Western military art is composed primarily of an amalgam of French, German, British, and American systems. The Russian system borrows from these systems as well, either through study, or personal observation in the form of invasion (
Western military doctrine relies heavily on technology, the use of a well-trained and empowered NCO cadre, and superior information processing and dissemination to provide a level of battlefield awareness that opponents cannot match. Its advantages are extreme flexibility, extreme lethality, and a focus on removing an opponent's
Soviet military doctrine (and its descendants, in CIS countries) relies heavily on masses of machinery and troops, a highly educated (albeit very small) officer corps, and pre-planned missions. Its advantages are that it does not require well educated troops, does not require a large logistic train, is under tight central control, and does not rely on a sophisticated C3I system after the initiation of a course of action. Its disadvantages are inflexibility, a reliance on the shock effect of mass (with a resulting high cost in lives and material), and overall inability to exploit unexpected success or respond to unexpected loss.
Chinese military doctrine is currently in a state of flux as the People's Liberation Army is evaluating military trends of relevance to China. Chinese military doctrine is influenced by a number of sources including an indigenous classical military tradition characterized by strategists such as Sun Tzu, Western and Soviet influences, as well as indigenous modern strategists such as Mao Zedong. One distinctive characteristic of Chinese military science is that it places emphasis on the relationship between the military and society as well as viewing military force as merely one part of an overarching grand strategy.
Each system trains its officer corps in its philosophy regarding military art. The differences in content and emphasis are illustrative. The
Russian Federation armed forces derive their
The military
The differences in the specifics of military art notwithstanding, military science strives to provide an integrated picture of the chaos of battle, and illuminate basic insights that apply to all combatants, not just those who agree with your formulation of the principles.
Military geography
Military geography encompasses much more than simple protestations to take the high ground. Military geography studies the obvious, the geography of theatres of war, but also the additional characteristics of politics, economics, and other natural features of locations of likely conflict (the political "landscape", for example). As an example, the
Military systems
How effectively and efficiently militaries accomplish their operations, missions and tasks is closely related not only to the methods they use, but the equipment and weapons they use.
Military intelligence
Military intelligence supports the
Most militaries maintain a military intelligence capability to provide analytical and information collection personnel in both specialist units and from other arms and services. Personnel selected for intelligence duties, whether specialist intelligence officers and enlisted soldiers or non-specialist assigned to intelligence may be selected for their analytical abilities and intelligence before receiving formal training.
Military intelligence serves to identify the threat, and provide information on understanding best methods and weapons to use in deterring or defeating it.
Military logistics
The art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with the design, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of material; the movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel; the acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and the acquisition or furnishing of services.
Military technology and equipment
Military technology is not just the study of various technologies and applicable physical sciences used to increase military power. It may also extend to the study of production methods of military equipment, and ways to improve performance and reduce material and/or technological requirements for its production. An example is the effort expended by Nazi Germany to produce artificial rubbers and fuels to reduce or eliminate their dependence on imported POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants) and rubber supplies.
Military technology is unique only in its application, not in its use of basic scientific and technological achievements. Because of the uniqueness of use, military technological studies strive to incorporate evolutionary, as well as the rare revolutionary technologies, into their proper place of military application.
Military and society
This speciality examines the ways that military and society interact and shape each other. The dynamic intersection where military and society meet is influenced by trends in society and the security environment.
Recruitment and retention
In an all volunteer military, the armed forces relies on market forces and careful recruiting to fill its ranks. It is thus, very important to understand factors that motivate enlistment and reenlistment. Service members must have the mental and physical ability to meet the challenges of military service and adapt to the military's values and culture.[13] Studies show that enlistment motivation generally incorporates both self-interest (pay) and non-market values like adventure, patriotism, and comradeship.[19][20][21]
Veterans
The study of veterans or members of the military who leave and return to the society is one of the most important subfields of the military and society field of study. Veterans and their issues represent a microcosm of the field. Military recruits represent inputs that flow from the community into the armed forces, veterans are outputs that leave the military and reenter society changed by their time as soldiers, sailors, marines and airmen. Both society and veteran face multiple layers of adaptation and adjustment upon their reentry.[22][23]
The definition of veteran is surprisingly fluid across countries. In the US veteran's status is established after a service member has completed a minimum period of service. Australia requires deployment to a combat zone.[24] In the UK "Everyone who has performed military service for at least one day and drawn a day's pay is termed a veteran."[25] The study of veterans focuses much attention on their, sometimes, uneasy transition back to civilian society. "Veterans must navigate a complex cultural transition when moving between environments," and they can expect positive and negative transition outcomes.[26] Finding a good job and reestablishing a fulfilling family life is high on their resettlement agenda.[27]
Military life is often violent and dangerous. The trauma of combat often results in post-traumatic stress disorder as well as painful physical health challenges
Reserve forces
Reserve forces are service members who serve the armed forces on a part-time basis. These men and women constitute a "reserve" force that countries rely on for their defense, disaster support, and some day-to-day operations etc. In the United States an active reservist spends a weekend a month and two weeks a year in training. The size of a county's reserve force often depends on the type of recruitment method. Nations with a volunteer force tend to have a lower reserve percentage.[35]
Recently the role of the reserves has changed. In many countries it [has] gone from a strategic force, largely static, to an operational force, largely dynamic.[35] After WWII, relatively large standing forces took care of most operational needs. Reserves were held back strategically and deployed in times of emergency for example during the Cuban missile crisis.[36] Subsequently, the strategic and budget situation changed and as a result the active duty military began to rely on reserve force, particularly for combat support and combat service support.[37] Further large-scale military operation, routinely mobilize and deploy reservists [38]
Lomsky-Feder et al (2008p. 594) introduced the metaphor of reserve forces as Transmigrants who live "betwixt and between the civilian and military worlds".[39] This metaphor captures "their structural duality" and suggests dynamic nature of reservist experience as they navigate commitments to their often conflicting civilian and military worlds.[40][41] Given their greater likelihood of lengthy deployment, reservists face many of the same stresses as active duty but often with fewer support services.[42]
University studies
Universities (or colleges) around the world also offer a degree(s) in military science:
- Belgium: Royal Military Academy (Belgium)- BA Social and Military Science; MA Social and Military Science
- Israel:
- Tel Aviv University – MA in Security.
- Bar-Ilan University – MA in Military, Security and Intelligence.
- Finland:
- National Defence University – Bachelor, Master, and PhD in Military science
- France:
- Sciences Po, Paris School of International Affairs - Master in International Security.
- New Zealand:
- Massey University, Centre for Defence and Security Studies – BA in Defence Studies.
- Victoria University of Wellington – Centre for Strategic Studies – Master of Strategic Studies (MSS).
- Slovenia:
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Studies – BA, MA and PhD in Defence studies; PhD in Military-Social Sciences
- United Kingdom:
- King's College London – MA in International Security and Strategy; MA, MPhil/PhD in Defence Studies
- University of Hull – MA in Strategy and International Security
- University of St Andrews - MLitt in Strategic Studies
- Sri Lanka
- Sri Lanka Military Academy - (Bachelor and Master's degree in Military Studies) Military training school Diyatalawa, Sri Lanka
- South Africa
- University of Stellenbosch - Bachelor of Military Science (BMil), Master of Military Science (MMil), MPhil in Security Management [43]
- United States:
- United States Air Force Academy – Major in Military and Strategic Studies; Minor in Nuclear Weapons and Strategy
- United States Military Academy – Major in Defense and Strategic Studies
- Hawaii Pacific University – Major in Diplomacy and Military Studies
- Missouri State University – Minor in Military Studies
International military sciences or studies associations
There are many international associations with the core purpose of bringing scholars in the field of Military Science together. Some are inter-disciplinary and have a broad scope, whilst others are confined and specialized focusing on more specific disciplines or subjects. Some are integrated in larger scientific communities like the International Sociological Association (ISA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) where others have grown out of military institutions or individuals who have had a particular interest in areas of military science and are military, defense or armed forces oriented. Some of these associations are:
- Military Psychology (APA-Div19)[44]
- European Research Group on Military and Society (ERGOMAS)[45]
- Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society (IUS)[46]
- International Congress on Soldiers Physical Performance (ICSPP) [47]
- International Military Testing Association (IMTA)[48]
- International Society of Military Sciences (ISMS)[49]
- International Sociological Association; RC01 Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution[50]
Military studies journals
The following are notable journals in the field:[51]
- Armed Forces & Society
- European Security
- International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence
- International Peacekeeping
- International Security
- Joint Forces Quarterly
- Journal of Strategic Studies
- Military Psychology
- Military Review
- Orbis (journal)
- Parameters (journal) Quarterly Journal of the US Army War College
- Security Dialogue
- Security Studies (journal)
- Survival (journal)
- The RUSI Journal
- The Washington Quarterly
See also
- Military doctrine
- Military theory
- War
- List of basic military science and technology topics
- List of military inventions
- List of military writers
- Philosophy of war
References
Notes
- ^ Jordan, 2013. p. 880.
- ^ a b Gat 1992, p. 12
- ^ p. 29, Gat
- ^ p. 194, Lodge
- ^ p. 12, Dupuy
- ^ taught by a Professor of Military Art at the Staff School in France, p. 248, Barnard
- ^ p. 248, Barnard
- ^ p. 113, Gat
- ^ p. 15, Dupuy
- ^ p. 138, Gat
- ^ pp. 138–139, Gat
- ^ p. 50, Thompson
- ^ ISBN 978-3-030-02866-4
- ^ Clausewitz, C. V. (1984). On War (trans. and ed.: Howard, M., & Paret, P.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- ^ Tzu, The Art of War, XII.17
- ^ Forster, A. (2005). Armed forces and society in Europe. p. 9. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
- ^ Eighmey, J. (2006). Why do youth enlist?: Identification of underlying themes. Armed Forces & Society, 32(2), 307–328.
- ^ Bury, P. (2017). Recruitment and retention in British Army reserve logistics units. Armed Forces & Society, 43(4), 608–631.
- ^ Griffith, J. (2008). Institutional motives for serving in the U.S. Army National Guard: Implications for recruitment, retention, and readiness. Armed Forces & Society, 34(2), 230–258.
- ^ Kohen, A. I., & Shields, P. M. (1980). Reaping the spoils of defeat: Labor market experiences of Vietnam-era veterans. Strangers at home: Vietnam veterans since the War, 181-211.
- ^ Burdett, H., Woodhead, C., Iversen, A. C., Wessely, S., Dandeker, C., & Fear, N. T. (2013). "Are you a veteran?" understanding of the term "veteran" among UK ex-service personnel: A research note. Armed Forces & Society, 39(4), 751–759.
- ^ Dandeker, C., Wessely, S., Iversen, A., & Ross, J. (2006). What's in a name? Defining and caring for "veterans": The United Kingdom in international perspective. Armed Forces & Society, 32(2), p. 163.
- ^ Cooper, L., Caddick, N., Godier, L., Cooper, A., & Fossey, M. (2018). Transition from the military into civilian life: An exploration of cultural competence. Armed Forces & Society, 44(1), p. 156
- ^ Shields P.M. (2020) Dynamic Intersection of Military and Society. In: Sookermany A. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_31-1 https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_31-1
- ^ Hinojosa, R., Hinojosa, M. S., & Nguyen, J. (2019). Military service and physical capital: Framing musculoskeletal disorders among American military veterans using Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital. Armed Forces & Society, 45(2), 268–290
- ^ Wolfe-Clark, A. L., & Bryan, C. J. (2017). Integrating two theoretical models to understand and prevent military and veteran suicide. Armed Forces & Society, 43(3), 478–499.
- ^ Griffith, J. (2010). Citizens coping as soldiers: A review of postdeployment stress symptoms among deployed reservists. Military Psychology, 22, 176–206
- ^ Griffith, J. (2020). Community service and voting among veterans and nonveterans using a national sample of college undergraduates. Armed Forces and Society, 46(2), 323–341.
- ^ Inbody, D. S. (2016). The soldier vote: War, politics, and the ballot in America. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
- ^ Teigen, J. M. (2007). Veterans' party identification, candidate affect, and vote choice in the 2004 U.S. presidential election. Armed Forces & Society, 33(3), 414–437.
- ISSN 0095-327X.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-030-02866-4
- ^ Drew, N. S. (1999). NSC-68: Forging the strategy of containment. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, NSC-20/4, Sec. 21 (a), 31.
- ^ Carafano, J. J. (2005). Total Force and the Abrams doctrine: Unfulfilled promise, uncertain future. Philadelphia: Foreign Policy Research Institute.
- ^ Whitlock, J. E. (2006). How to make army force generation work for the Army Reserve component. Carlisle Barracks: Strategic Studies Institute, Army War College
- ^ Lomsky-Feder, E., Gazit, N., & Ben-Ari, E. (2008). Reserve soldiers as transmigrants: Moving between the civilian and military worlds. Armed Forces & Society, 34(4), p. 594.
- ^ Lomsky-Feder, E., Gazit, N., & Ben-Ari, E. (2008). Reserve soldiers as transmigrants: Moving between the civilian and military worlds. Armed Forces & Society, 34(4), 593–614.
- ISSN 0095-327X.
- ^ Griffith, J. (2019). Family readiness groups: Helping deployed Army National Guard soldiers and their families. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3), 804–817.
- ^ milscience, sun.ac.za
- ^ "Military Psychology". The Society for Military Psychology. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ "Ergomas - Home". ergomas.ch. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ "Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society". Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ "Home". icspp2020.ca.
- ^ "IMTA Home Page". Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
- ^ "International Society of Military Sciences Home". www.isofms.org. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ "RC01 Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution".
- ^ "Google Scholar Metrics, Military Studies". Retrieved 15 December 2012.
Bibliography
- Barnard, Henry, Military Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science and Art of War in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Sardinia, England, and the United States, Part I – France and Prussia, J.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1862
- Dupuy, Trevor N., Understanding War: History and Theory of Combat, Leo Cooper, London, 1992
- Gat, Azar (1992). The Development of Military Thought: The Nineteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press.
- Jordan, Kelly C., "Military Science", in G. Kurt Piehler, ed. Encyclopedia of Military Science, SAGE Reference, Volume, 2. pp. 880–885.
- Lodge, Henry Cabot, (ed.), The North American Review, Making of America Project, University of Northern Iowa, 1878
- Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich, eds. The Routledge History of Global War and Society (2018) [1]
- Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich. Ways of War: American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century (2018) [2]
- Shields Patricia M. (2020) Dynamic Intersection of Military and Society. In: Sookermany A. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. Springer, Cham. ISBN 978-3-030-02866-4
- Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies New York: Routledge, 2014.
- Sookermany A. (ed.) 2020 Handbook of Military Sciences. Springer, Cham. ISBN 978-3-030-02866-4
- Thompson, Julian, Lifeblood of war: Logistics in armed conflict, Brassey's classics, London, 1991
External links
US Military/Government Texts
- The Logic of Warfighting Experiments by Kass (CCRP, 2006)
- Complexity, Networking, and Effects Based Approaches to Operations by Smith (CCRP, 2006)
- Understanding Command and Control by Alberts and Hayes (CCRP, 2006)
- The Agile Organization by Atkinson and Moffat (CCRP, 2005)
- Power to the Edge by Alberts and Hayes (CCRP, 2003)
- Network Centric Warfare by Alberts et al. (CCRP, 1999)