Military uniform
A military uniform is a standardised
Military dress and styles have gone through significant changes over the centuries, from colourful and elaborate, ornamented clothing until the 19th century, to utilitarian camouflage uniforms for field and battle purposes from World War I (1914–1918) on. Military uniforms in the form of standardised and distinctive dress, intended for identification and display, are typically a sign of organised military forces equipped by a central authority.
Military uniforms differ not only according to military units but tend to also be offered in different levels of formality in accordance with Western dress codes: full dress uniform for formal wear, mess dress uniform for semi-formal wear, service dress uniform for informal wear, and combat uniform (also called "battle/field dress") which would equal casual wear. Sometimes added to the casual wear category is physical training uniforms.
History
A distinction should be made between
Mercenary or irregular fighters could also develop their own fashions, which set them apart from civilians, but were not really uniforms. The clothing of the German Landsknechte of the 16th century is an example of distinctive military fashion. Special units such as Zouaves developed non-standard uniforms to distinguish them from troops of the line.
Antiquity
There are a few recorded attempts at uniform dress in antiquity, going beyond the similarity to be expected of ethnic or tribal dress. One example is the Spanish infantry of Hannibal who wore white tunics with crimson edgings. Another is the Spartan hoplite in his red garment, attributed by Plutarch "partly because it seems to be a manly colour and partly because (it) causes more terror amongst inexperienced foes".[1] The Terracotta Army discovered in the tomb of the first Emperor of China (c. 200 BC) have a superficial similarity but closer examination shows up to seven different styles of armour, which do not appear to have been standardised within separate units.
Rome
The legions of the Roman Republic and Empire had a fairly standardised dress and armour, particularly from approximately the early to mid 1st century onward, when Lorica Segmentata (segmented armour) was introduced.[2] However the lack of unified production for the Roman army meant that there were still considerable differences in detail. Even the armour produced in state factories varied according to the province of origin.[3] Fragments of surviving clothing and wall paintings indicate that the basic tunic of the Roman soldier was of un-dyed (off-white) or red-dyed wool.[4] Senior commanders are known to have worn white cloaks and plumes. Centurions – the century commanders who made up the long serving backbone of the legions – were distinguished by transverse crests on their helmets, various chest ornaments (phaleræ) corresponding to modern medals, torques (a symbol borrowed from the Gauls and also used as a military award), and the vine stick (Vitis) that they carried as a mark of their office.
While some auxiliary cohorts in the late Roman period had carried shields with distinctive colours or designs, there is no evidence that any one Roman legion was distinguished from another by features other than the numbers on the leather covers protecting their shields.[5]
Post-classical era
The feudal system of Western Europe provided instances of distinguishing features denoting allegiance to one or another lord. These however seldom went beyond colours and patterns painted on shields or embroidered on surcoats. Orders of military monks such as the Knights Templar or Hospitaller wore mantles respectively of white (with red crosses on the shoulder)[6] and of black (later red with white crosses) [7] over the usual pattern of armour for their periods. In the later part of the Medieval period instances of standardised clothing being issued for particular campaigns began to occur. English examples included the white coats worn by Norfolk levies recruited in 1296 and the green and white clothing that identified Cheshire archers during the 14th century.[8]
The regular thematic (provincial) and Tagmata (central) troops of the Byzantine Empire (East Roman) are the first known soldiers to have had what would now be considered regimental or unit identification. During the 10th century, each of the cavalry "banda" making up these forces is recorded as having plumes and other distinctions in a distinctive colour. Officers wore a waist sash or pekotarion, which may have been of different colours according to rank.[9]
Early modern era
European regimental dress
The styles and decoration of military uniforms varied immensely with the status, image, and resources of the military throughout the ages. Uniform dress became the norm with the adoption of regimental systems, initially by the
By this time, in France at least, the general character of the clothes and accoutrements to be worn on various occasions was strictly regulated by orders. But uniformity of clothing was not to be expected so long as the "enlistment" system prevailed and soldiers were taken in and dismissed at the beginning and end of every campaign. The beginnings of uniform are therefore to be found in truly national armies, in the Indelta of Gustavus Adolphus, and the English armies of the
Thus the principle ever since followed — uniform coat and variegated facings — was established. By choice or convenience the majority of the corps out of which the New Model Army was formed had come to be dressed in red, with facings according to the colonel's taste. In Austria sixty years afterwards events took the same course. The colonels there uniformed their men as they saw fit, but had, probably to obtain "wholesale" prices, agreed upon a serviceable colour, pearl grey. When in 1707 Prince Eugene procured the issue of uniform regulations, few line regiments had to be re-clothed. In France, as in England and Austria, the cavalry, still led by the wealthy classes rather than officered by the professional, was not uniformed upon an army system until after the infantry. But in 1688 six-sevenths of the French cavalry was uniformed in light grey with red facings; and about half the dragoon regiments had red uniforms and blue facings. The Marquis of Louvois, in creating a standing army, had introduced an infantry uniform as a necessary consequence. The native French regiments had light grey coats, the Swiss red, the German black and the Italian blue, with various facings. The French grey was probably decided upon, like the Austrian grey, as being a good "service" colour, which could be cheaply manufactured.[13]
During the 18th century the normal military uniform in Europe comprised a standardised form of civilian dress (
Officers (who paid for their own clothing) were slower to accept uniforms. During the late 17th century they were often dressed in individual styles and colours according to their own taste and means. In part this was because the uniform dress issued to the rank and file was considered a form of livery — the mark of a servant and demeaning to members of the social class from which officers came. One early practice in the French and other armies was for officers to wear coats of the facing colour of their regiments. Rank insignia as such was unknown until well into the 18th century. The
Ottoman Empire
The highly organised armies of the
Later modern era
The first fifteen years of the 19th century influenced the appearance of military uniforms until the 1850s. In particular, some uniforms of the Grande Armée – notably those of the cavalry regiments of the Imperial Guard – are considered as being amongst the most striking and distinctive of the time.[20] The cost of the French uniforms varied widely, going from 200 to 250 francs for a line infantryman's outfit to 2000 francs for a cuirassier's uniform.[20] Cavalrymen of the Guard had no fewer than 10 different uniforms.[20] One justification for the expensive parade dresses of the Guard was that they would "lead the people of the conquered nations to regard the French uniforms with unreserved astonishment".[20] As a general trend France and other European states replaced their bicornes by feathered shakos or crested helmets, while the coatee-type jacket replaced the combination of tailcoat and waistcoat.[21]
The ornamental peak of the military uniform was reached in the early 19th century in Western Europe. Sometimes the Napoleonic Wars are identified as being the acme of colourful and ornate uniforms, but actually the several decades of relative peace that followed were a time of even more decorative styles and embellishments. The Napoleonic soldier on campaign was likely to present a shabby and nondescript appearance as unsuitable peacetime dress quickly deteriorated or was replaced with whatever local substitutes were available.
Until later on in the century dyes were primitive and different batches of uniforms worn by the same unit might present differing shades, especially after exposure to rain and sun. The white uniforms popular amongst many armies through the 18th and early 19th centuries soiled easily and had to be
In an early instance of military camouflage, the sailors of Imperial Rome are reported to have worn blue/grey tunics.[22] However uniform dress was not a feature of
No uniform was prescribed for the French Navy until a standardised suit for officers of blue and red was decreed in 1764. This evolved from optional blue clothing authorised by Royal decree as early as 1665, although practical grey, brown or black colours were worn at sea. In other 17th-18th navies of Mediterranean states red was a commonly worn colour.[23]
Until the middle of the 19th century only officers and warrant officers in the Royal Navy wore regulated uniforms. Through the 18th century to the Napoleonic Wars navy officers had a form of dress broadly resembling that of army officers, though in dark blue with white facings. In the early 19th century Royal Navy officers developed a more distinctive form of uniform comprising (in full dress uniform) a cocked hat, dark blue coatee with white collar and cuffs, dark blue or white trousers, or breeches.[24] Epaulettes and braiding were gold and varied according to rank. In a simplified form this dress (without the cocked hat) survives as the modern ceremonial dress for flag officers. Throughout this period sailors supplied or made their own clothing. Sailors developed traditional clothing suitable for their work: loose-fitting trousers with belts made of rope; tunics that slipped over the head, with arms to above the wrist so that the cloth would not foul in ropes passing through a cleat or pulley. For cold weather, a jumper was knitted from yarn or wool. For wet weather, old sail cloth was made into a coat (with hat or attached hood) that was waterproofed with tallow or fat. In these days, the officers would designate certain afternoons to "make and mend" (clothing). A sailor with little clothing to make or mend used this time as "time off". In January 1857 the decision was taken to issue complete uniforms to petty officers and seamen.[25] This included features which can still be recognised in the Class I uniform of ratings in the modern Royal Navy - notably the wide blue collar with white tapes, a black neckerchief, white lanyard and blue or white jumper. The flared "
American Civil War
It is generally supposed that Union soldiers wore blue uniforms and Confederate soldiers wore grey ones. However, this was only a generalisation. Both the Union and the Confederacy drew up uniform regulations, but as a matter of practical reality neither side was able to fully equip its men at the outbreak of the war. Existing state units and quickly raised volunteer regiments on both sides wore a wide variety of styles and colours in the early stages of the war. Some regiments—such as the North's Berdan Sharpshooters and the South's Alexandria Rifles—had green uniforms, while the French zouave style was widely imitated.
The Union eventually got most of its men into regulation Federal blue but this often faded until it appeared grey. Originally the Confederate government relied on the "commutation" system which required the states to provide their own uniforms. While the commutation system was in place, many states were not able to provide an ample supply of uniforms and captured federal uniforms were common. Later in the war the Confederate national government provided uniforms from a central depot system, including the famous Richmond and Columbus depots. Many photographs of Confederate soldiers from later in the war (usually casualties) are wearing standardised uniforms. As Sherman's men marched across Georgia and up the Carolinas, they were cut off from supply by the Union and began wearing clothing of Confederate origin. Confederate soldiers used a variety of vegetable and imported dyes which would fade to a "butternut" colour.
End of bright colours
Until 1914 the majority of armies still provided colourful dress uniforms for all ranks,
The British were the first to introduce drab/khaki uniforms: in 1848 in India.
With the exception of Western-influenced units such as the "Ever-Triumphant Army" of the Taiping Rebellion (1851–66), Chinese armies of the 19th century wore dress that was broadly variegated. Embroidered chest panels and coloured buttons on headdresses were used to distinguish rank and sometimes unit. From 1910 the Imperial Chinese Army adopted dark blue uniforms of Japanese style with coloured facings of red, white, or yellow to distinguish the different branches. The Imperial Guard Division had a light grey uniform with the same branch colours as the line. A khaki summer uniform was worn by the entire army.[39]
By the 20th century, drab colours were increasingly being adopted for active service and ordinary duty wear. The
Steel helmets first appeared in the form of the "Adrian" helmet adopted by the French Army in 1915. The practical advantages of this innovation led the British and German armies to adopt their own helmets by 1916. Other armies followed suit – the Belgians and Italians for example copying the French model and the Austro-Hungarians that of Germany.
Interwar period
The drab uniforms of 1914–18 remained in general use until the Second World War. This was partly for political reasons, since the
The use of steel helmets was by now almost universal and a number of countries adopted their own designs moving away from the German, British, and French models of the First World War. The Italians, Soviets, Japanese, Swiss, Spanish and Portuguese were amongst these. Steel helmets, originally simply items of utilitarian protective clothing, were adopted as parade headdress by the French, German, Italian, and Soviet armies, amongst others, between the Wars.
Second World War
Uniforms of varying shades of khaki and grey were universal in the Second World War but the cut and outline appearance of the different armies still made identification in the field relatively straight forward. A Soviet soldier would, for example be distinguishable from his German opponent by his general outline, even in the fog of battle. British, American, Japanese and French uniforms still retained some distinctive features, even as they became more and more utilitarian in the course of the War.
The US Army discarded its First World War style field uniforms in 1941 in favour of a very plain and practical
By contrast, British soldiers, other than officers, had their 1938 battledress for all occasions.
In Germany the Nazi regime retained uniforms with many traditional features from Imperial Germany for its army uniforms, such as field grey cloth, marching boots (a taller version for officers), collar litzen (braiding) and breeches (for officers and NCOs); German Panzer (tank) troops had a special combat uniform made of black wool and German troops serving in tropical climates had uniforms in a shade of khaki. Later in the war, severe leather shortages led to the replacement of marching boots with ankle height shoes worn with gaiters (Gemäsch).
Imperial Japan used a light brown or khaki colour for most Imperial army uniforms — though there was also a green
From 1935 to 1943, Soviet Army uniforms for all troops (except than tank troops) were an intermediate shade of brown; uniforms included a field uniform ("
Modern uniforms
Most military forces have developed several different uniform types, including combat dress, working dress, service or ordinary duty uniforms and (to a very limited extent) ceremonial full dress.
Camouflage
Today, all armies wear some form of camouflage uniforms for training and combat duty purposes. Armies facing service in different theatres may need several different camouflage uniforms.
Parade
Traditional coloured uniforms have long since given way to clothing more suited for actual combat in modern conditions. Bright colours are now usually reserved for wear by units having ceremonial functions, some bands and officers attending formal occasions. Elite units normally contrive to having some distinctive features. The United States Marine Corps are well known for their traditional midnight blue tunics and sky blue trousers (trimmed in red for NCO and above). These "dress blues" are worn for formal occasions such as the Marine Corps Birthday Ball in November. The British Household Cavalry and Foot Guards wear uniforms largely unchanged from 1914 for "public duties" i.e. ceremonial.
The military of many countries have adopted the economical expedient of smartening up combat uniforms for parade by adding
and sashes of the North African colonial regiments from which they are descended with modern khaki or camouflage clothing, on appropriate occasions.By country
France
The battle dress of the French Armed Forces is the FÉLIN system combined with SPECTRA helmets. France has adopted a light beige dress uniform which is worn with coloured kepis, sashes, fringed epaulettes, fourragères and other traditional items on appropriate occasions. As an alternative parade dress, camouflage uniforms can be worn with the dress items noted above.[43] The legionnaires of the Foreign Legion wear white kepis, blue sashes and green and red epaulettes as dress uniform, while the sappers wear the basic legionnaire uniform but with leather aprons and gloves. Troupes de marine wear blue and red kepis and yellow epaulettes. The Chasseurs Alpins wear a large beret, known as the "tarte" (the pie), and mountain outfits. The single remaining regiment of Spahis retains the white cloak and red sash of the days when this corps consisted of Algerian and Moroccan cavalry.
Sailors of the French Navy and Fusiliers marins wear a dress uniform dating from the 19th century with a distinctive red pompon on the round cap.
The infantry and cavalry of the Republican Guard retain their late 19th-century dress uniforms, as do the military cadets of Saint-Cyr and the École polytechnique. A dark blue/black evening dress is authorized for officers[44] and individual branches or regiments may parade bands or "fanfares" in historic dress dating as far back as the Napoleonic period.
Germany
The German Army has retained a form of field grey for dress wear though of modern cut and worn with berets. Some senior officers still wear peaked caps. The collar braid stripes (Litzen), that distinguished regiments of the Prussian Guard prior to 1918, have become a general feature of modern German uniforms. The Mountain infantry troops retain a more traditional dress uniform. The Nationale Volksarmee of the former German Democratic Republic also maintained a stone grey uniform, following the Imperial German tradition. Both the West and East German militaries still retained Prussian-style dress uniform respectively, with the West abandoning the "Stiefelhosen" (bootcut trousers). Until 1945 Waffenrock (English: service coat or tunic) – was the generic term for military uniform. This included dress uniforms, parade uniforms, and also epaulettes or shoulder boards with rank insignia, as well as uniform cuffs, badges and other insignia.
India
During the
uniform standardises on dun for khaki.The Indian Army camouflage uniform consists of shirts, trousers, and cap of a synthetic material. Shirts are buttoned up with two chest pockets with buttoned flaps. Trousers have two pockets, two thigh box pockets, and a back pocket. The Indian Army Jungle camouflage dress features a jungle camouflage pattern and is designed for use in woodland environments. The Indian Army Desert camouflage, which features a desert camouflage pattern, is used by artillery and infantry posted in dusty, semi-desert, and desert areas of Rajasthan and its vicinity.
Parade dress for the modern Indian Army normally involve the addition of pagris (
Indonesia
The
Italy
The Italian Armed Forces use a range of different uniforms and uniform variations for each of their four branches: the Italian Army, the Italian Air Force, the Italian Navy and the Carabinieri Corps.
The traditional headdresses of the Bersaglieri, Horse Artillery and Alpini are still worn by the Italian Army, the Bersaglieri even wearing their flowing feathers on steel helmets as part of their combat dress. Officers of all branches have a dark blue dress uniform of modern cut while the Corazzieri (Cuirassiers of the Presidential Guard), Mounted Carabinieri and cadets of the Military Academy of Modena wear ceremonial uniforms which date back to the 19th century. Individual regiments with a long history, such as the Lancieri di Montebello and the Granatieri di Sardegna occasionally parade honour guards or other detachments in their pre-1915 dark blue uniforms.
Iran
The military of Iran uses a variety of military uniforms, including a solid olive-green pattern. Several other uniforms have also been reserved for parade use, such as a slate grey, a black and white, a beige, a beige on beige, a beige on brown, a beige on green, and an eggshell white-coloured uniform – paired with a matching beret and balaclava.[47]
The Iranian military uses several types of camouflage patterns. Three distinct desert camouflage patterns with slightly differing colour palettes and blotch densities have been issued; one for the Islamic Republic of Iran Army, one for the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, and a third pattern used by the tarabaris personnel who repair military cars and trucks. A green and brown forest camouflage pattern was also issued to the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Defense Force. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force was issued an arctic blue camouflage pattern. A pixelated grey and green camouflage pattern was issued to the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy.[47]
Russia
The Russian Army has retained a number of features, such as officers' epaulettes, high boots and long greatcoats with collar patches for all ranks, which can be traced back to Tsarist days. The dress uniform for officers is of the same distinctive blue/green colour as "Tsar's green", worn until 1914. The Kremlin Regiment has in recent years been issued with a special ceremonial uniform which closely resembles that of the infantry regiments of the Imperial Guard immediately prior to the First World War. Women's uniforms in the Russian Army feature a skirt instead of trousers and a garrison cap instead of a beret or peaked cap. Since 1994 the uniform (or its main details) has undergone a series of changes in 1999, 2005, 2010, 2013 and 2017.
Spain
The Spanish Army has reintroduced a number of dress uniforms dating back to the pre-1931 Monarchy. These include a variety of parade uniforms worn by various units of the recreated Royal Guard as well as the traditional dark blue and white uniforms of the
United Kingdom
The British Army generally retains its traditional full dress uniforms only for bands and units performing ceremonial functions (notably the
United States
In recent decades, many militaries around the world have gradually simplified the range of uniforms issued. For example, most U.S. servicemen now wear camouflage utilities for daily duty and all but the most formal occasions-whereas in the past the service uniform would be worn unless a soldier was engaged in a dirty or physical task. As an example of modern practice, the
Based on recommendations made during a comprehensive briefing by Task Force Uniform on 24 Feb. 2006, CNO Michael G. Mullen agreed to production of both a BDU-style working uniform for all Sailors E-1 to O-10 and a more practical, year-round service uniform to withstand day-to-day classroom and office-like environments where the service uniform is typically worn. The new Navy Working Uniform (NWU) is now worn by naval sailors and officers. On 6 June 2006 the US Army announced that its green and white uniforms would be superseded by the Army Blue Uniform as a universal service uniform in the historic colours of dark blue (for tunics) and light blue (for trousers). The new service dress was introduced in 2007 and became obligatory for all ranks by 2011.
As of 1 April 2021, the Air Force makes use of the Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP) as a common daily uniform. This is the same uniform worn by the US Army with the exception of distinctive name patches with copper lettering. The footwear worn with ABUs are coyote brown suede boots and head covering is the OCP pattern Patrol Cap or ball cap, or the beret of the relevant career field (Security Forces, Special Operations Weather Team, SERE Instructor, Pararescue, and Combat Controller). Aside from OCPs, the most common uniform to be worn would be dress blues, which incorporate a light navy blue for bottoms, and the same shade to match the top jacket. Underneath the top jacket either a long sleeve or short sleeve sky blue shirt may be worn with a tie or neck tab whenever wearing the top jacket. The jacket is reserved for more formal events. Placed on the outermost tunic, Airmen may pin their ribbons and career badge as optional with their name plate as the only mandatory item. For headgear a flight cap of matching shade to the pants and similar in appearance to the former Army green garrison cap and the shoes are a black high polished dress shoe. Other, but not standard, headgear includes the flat top mess dress cap and the appropriate beret career field beret. Blues, though the second most used uniform, receive far less service than OCPs. Those performing duties not suited for the formal dress uniform may wear OCPs instead. The Mess Uniform uses the same pants and jacket as dress blues, but with a white under-shirt, bow tie and cummerbund, and the same black dress shoes.[49]
Purpose
Distinctive clothing
One purpose of
Another purpose in historical times was to make it difficult for deserters to avoid detection; military uniforms were so distinctive with many metal buttons and unique colours that they could not be modified into unrecognisable clothing. If the commander raised and equipped the troops out of his own pocket, the appearance of the soldiers was also designed to impress his superiors.
Attractive or distinctive uniforms could make a military career desirable to young men or women (the "peacock" factor). As late as 1914 the British Army found that regiments with particularly striking off-duty or parade uniforms found it easier to attract recruits. Thus the four Rifle regiments in their sombre dark green had a higher public profile than the great mass of line infantry in scarlet.
Nationalism
During the
Religion
The patched
Visibility or camouflage
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the typical colour scheme included bright and highly contrasting colour arrangements which made it easier to distinguish units in battle. Coloured uniforms were useful in enabling commanders to spot troop locations on battlefields that were often completely obscured by smoke from the black gunpowder used in both muskets and cannons. Large flags were another aid to co-ordination and location for commanders.
However, with the growing prevalence of accurate rifles and other ranged firearms as standard weapons for infantry, it was found, from about the 1880s on, that these colours made soldiers easy targets for enemies to shoot at a distance. These weapons used a new smokeless powder that generated far less smoke leaving the battlefield un-obscured by smoke and making brightly coloured troops into highly visible targets. In reaction, the various militaries, beginning with the British Army, changed the colours, predominantly to such ones that blended in more with the terrain, such as khaki, grey or olive drab for the purposes of camouflage. In addition, this idea was followed with uniforms suitable for particular climates and seasons such as white for snowy regions and tan for sandy ones. Now most armies have some form of camouflaged uniform, such as the British Disruptive Pattern Material.
Many modern military forces now use a system of combat uniforms that not only break up the outline of the soldier for use on the battlefield during the daytime, but also employ a distinctive appearance that makes them difficult to detect with light amplification devices, such as
Uniform of the day
The "uniform of the day," when referred to in a
The "uniform of the day" may also be referred to as the "dress of the day" in some militaries.
Logistics
Mass-produced uniforms are a good way to equip thousands of soldiers quickly and efficiently. Uniforms in standard sizes and designs are also easier to replace on campaign. As an example, English levies raised for service in Ireland or the Continent during the 17th century came to be provided with clothing purchased in bulk and often of a standard colour or cut. This was however only a temporary wartime expedient and the development of uniforms as such had to wait on the formulation of a system of permanent regiments, notably by the French Monarchy (see above).
Psychological warfare
The appearance of the troops was often enhanced in some way to intimidate the enemy. The tall, mitre-shaped caps worn by grenadiers in the 18th century made their wearers appear bigger and more impressive. King
The warriors of ancient Sparta, normally known for their austere lifestyle, wore expensive red cloaks[citation needed]. Reportedly this was adopted as the only colour on which the spilled blood of their enemies would not leave stains. There is a popular myth that the historic red coat of the English soldier was adopted for the same reason (in fact, blood does show as a dark stain on red clothing and the British red coat originated as a historical accident, possibly as a result of the relative cheapness of madder red dyes at the time of the English Civil War in the mid-17th century).
Hair styles in military organisations usually follow civilian fashions, but sometimes certain features are associated with soldiers. In the late 19th century, the ornate
Components of military uniform
- Aiguillette
- Badges
- Bearskin
- Beret
- Brassard
- Busby
- Buttons
- Coatee
- Czapka
- Epaulette
- Fez
- Fourragère
- Garrison cap
- Glengarry
- gorget
- gymnasterka
- Hackle
- Kepi
- Medal
- Peaked cap
- Pickelhaube
- Pith helmet
- Red coat
- Ribbon bar
- Rogatywka
- Sailor cap
- Sam Browne belt
- Sash
- Shako
- Stable belt
- Tunic
- Ushanka
- Sajkaca
See also
- Military uniform types
- Other
- Armour
- Costumes
- Facial hair in the military
- List of camouflage patterns
- Militaria
- Uniforms by country
- Egyptian Army Uniform
- Greek Army uniforms
- Modern Irish Army uniform
- Swedish military uniforms
- Tanzanian Armed Forces Uniform
- Uniforms of the Australian Army
- Uniforms of the Canadian Armed Forces
- Uniforms of the Imperial Japanese Army
- Uniforms of Iraqi Armed Forces
- Uniforms of the New Zealand Army
- Uniforms of the Royal Danish Army
Citations
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- ^ Michael Simkins, page 17 "The Roman Army from Hadrian to Constantine", Osprey Publishing 1979"
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- ISBN 0-85045-191-4.
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- ISBN 0-19-285333-3
- ISBN 978-1846031052.
- ISBN 0-85045-997-4.
- ^ a b Asquith 1981, p. 32.
- ^ Pfanner 2004, pp. 105–107.
- ^ a b c Atkinson 1911, p. 582.
- ISBN 0-214-65349-8
- ISBN 978-1-907417-52-8.
- ISBN 0-214-65349-8
- ^ Kannik 1968, p. 147.
- ISBN 0-214-65349-8
- ISBN 978-1-907417-52-8.
- ^ a b c d Uniforms : Napoleonic Wars : French : Russian : Austrian : British : Prussian, Napoleonistyka.atspace.com, archived from the original on 19 December 2012, retrieved 13 January 2013
- ^ Kannik 1968, p. 270.
- ISBN 978-1-84603-317-9.
- ISBN 978-88-93278959.
- ISBN 1-85532-334-6.
- ISBN 0-85045-248-1.
- ^ a b Tynan, Jane (2013). British Army Uniform and the First World War: Men in Khaki. Palgrave Macmillan.
- ^ Kannik 1968, p. 231.
- ^ page 588, Volume 27, Encyclopædia Britannica – 11th edition
- ISBN 0-85524-097-0.
- ISBN 0-09-180178-8.
- ISBN 0-684-16304-7.
- ISBN 978-1-78331-175-0.
- ISBN 978-0-74780-739-1.
- ^ "Khaki Uniform 1848-49: First Introduction by Lumsden and Hodson", Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, JSAHR 82 (Winter 2004) pp 341-347
- ^ Kannik 1968, p. 235.
- ISBN 87-88165-47-7
- ISBN 0-7137-0920-0.
- ISBN 4-499-20587-5
- ISBN 0-684-16304-7.
- ISBN 978-3-902526-09-0.
- ^ Kannik 1968, p. 236.
- ^ Bueno 1983, p. 26.
- ISBN 978-2-35250-195-4.
- ISBN 978-2-35250-195-4.
- ISBN 0-946771-98-7.
- ^ "Peraturan Panglima Tentara Nasional Indonesia Nomor 11 Tahun 2019 Tentang Seragam Dinas Tentara Nasional Indonesia". National Armed Forces Commander Regulation No. 11 of 2019 (in Indonesian). Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.
- ^ a b "How I learned to stop worrying and love the Iranian army". The Guardian. 23 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
- ^ cs 95 the big issue !, Arrse.co.uk, archived from the original on 6 August 2012, retrieved 20 January 2013
- ^ DAFI 26-2903
- ^ Elliott 2002, p. 126.
- ^ Lanxin Xiang 2003, p. 207.
- ^ Mahdist Tunic. V&A digital collection catalogue. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
- ^ G. Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan Since the Mahdiyya, Hurst & Company, 2003, p. 28
- ^ Mahdist Shirt; jibba. British Museum digital collection catalogue. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
- ^ a b The jibba: clothing for Sufi and soldier. Making African Connections. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
- ^ "CADPAT or MARPAT Camouflage".
- ^ Uniform Regulations. United States Marine Corps. 1922. p. 1 sec. 4.
General sources
- Bueno, José María (1983), El Ejército de Alfonso XIII - La Infantería de Línea (in Spanish), Madrid: Barreira, p. 26, ISBN 84-86071-02-X
- Elliott, Jane E. (2002), Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war, Chinese University Press, p. 126, ISBN 962-996-066-4, retrieved 28 June 2010
- Kannik, Preben (1968), Military Uniforms of the World, London: Blandford P., ISBN 0713704829
- Lanxin Xiang (2003), The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study, Psychology Press, p. 207, )
- Pfanner, Toni (March 2004), "Military uniforms and the law of war" (PDF), International Review of the Red Cross, 86 (853): 93–124, S2CID 144589400
- Asquith, Stuart (1981), New Model Army 1645-60 (illustrated ed.), Osprey, p. 32, ISBN 9780850453850
- Attribution
- public domain: Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911). "Uniforms". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 582–593. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
External links
- "Images of military uniforms". NYPL Digital Gallery.
- Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library
- Company of Military Historians Website
- {US} Civil War Old Photographs Page
- U.S. Civil War Era Uniforms and Accouterments
- Soviet and Russian Federation uniforms and insignias
- The Evolution of Military Camouflage